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Unlimited self-renewal is an absolute prerequisite for any malignancy, and is the ultimate arbiter of the continuous growth and metastasis of tumors. It has been suggested that the self-renewal properties of a tumor are exclusively contained within a small population, i.e., the so-called cancer stem cells. Enhanced self-renewal potential plays a pivotal role in the development of leukemia. My data have shown that APL associated translocation products PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha increased the replating efficiency of mouse lin-/Sca1+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). This effect is partly mediated by induction of gamma–catenin which is an important mediator of the Wnt signaling pathway and has been shown to be up regulated by the AML associated translocation products(AATPs). Suppression of gamma–catenin by siRNA can abrogate the increased replating efficiency induced by AATPs. Transduction of gamma–catenin in lin-/Sca1+ HSCs led to increased replating efficiency and the expression of stem cell markers Sca1 and c-kit. Additionally it induced accelerated cell cycle progression of mouse bone marrow HSCs. Transduction/transplantation mouse models have shown that ectopic expression of gamma–catenin in HSCs led to acute myeloid leukemia without maturation. These data suggest important roles of Wnt signaling pathway in the leukemogenesis induced by PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha and AML1/ETO. In contrast to AATPs, CML and Ph+-ALL associated translocation products p185(BCR-ABL) and p210(BCR-ABL) did not affect the self-renewal potential of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. However my studies indicated that their reciprocal translocation products p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) actually increased the replating efficiency of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. The effect is stronger when induced by p96(ABL/BCR) than by p40(ABL/BCR). It is very intriguing that p96(ABL/BCR) can activate Wnt signaling and up regulate the expression of HoxB4. Transduction/transplantation mouse model has shown that p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) both have their own leukemogenic potential. Given the fact that leukemic stem cells maintain the growth of tumor and are the origin of relapse, the cure of leukemia is dependent on the eradication of the leukemic stem cell and abrogation of aberrantly regulated self-renewal capability. Both t-RA and As2O3 have been shown to induce complete remission in APL patients with PML/RARalpha translocation product. However, t-RA as a single agent achieves completeremission (CR) but not complete molecular remissions (CMR). Therefore, virtually all patients will experience a relapse within a few months. In contrast to t-RA, As2O3 as a single agent is able to induce CR as well as CMR followed by long-term relapse-free survival in about 50% of APL patients even if relapsed after treatment with t-RA-containing chemotherapy regimens. Nothing is known about the mechanisms leading to the complete different clinical outcomes by the two compounds although both have been shown to induce differentiation of blast cells, proliferation arrest, induction of apoptosis and degradation of PML/RARalpha. We investigated the effect of t-RA and arsenic on PML/RARalpha-expressing cell population with stem cell capacity derived from the APL cell line NB4 as well as Sca1+/lin- murine bone marrow cells. We found that t-RA did not reduce the replating efficiency in PML/RARalpha- and PLZF/RARalpha-infected Sca1+/lincells whereas it selected small compact colonies representing very early progenitor cells. T-RA was unable to reduce the capacity to form colony forming units-spleen (CFU-S) of Sca1+/lin-cells expressing PML/RARalpha, additionally t-RA did not impair the capability of engraftment of NB4 cells in NOD/SCID mouse. On the contrary to t-RA, As2O3 abolished the aberrant self-renewal potential of Sca1+/lin- cells expressing PML/RARalpha. As2O3 not only abolished the replating efficiency of PML/RARalpha positive cells but also completely abrogated the ability of PML/RARalpha-positive HSC to produce CFU-S in vivo. On the contrary to As2O3, t-RA increased the absolute cell number and the percentage of cells in the side population with respect to the whole cell population in NB4 cells. Taken together these data suggest that arsenic but not all-trans retinoic acid overcomes the aberrant stem cell capacity of PML/RARalpha positive leukemic stem cells. My data prove for the first time that there is a direct relationship between the capacity of compounds to effectively target the LSC and their capacity to eradicate the leukemia, and, thereby, to induce complete molecular remission and long-term relapse-free survival. Thus, in order to increase the curative potential of leukemia therapies, future studies need to include the effect of given compounds on the stem cell compartment to determine their ability to eradicate the LSC.
The carnitine transporter CaiT from Escherichia coli belongs to the betaine, choline, and carnitine transporter family of secondary transporters. It acts as an L-carnitine/gamma-butyrobetaine exchanger and is predicted to span the membrane 12 times. Unlike the other members of this transporter family, it does not require an ion gradient and does not respond to osmotic stress (Jung, H., Buchholz, M., Clausen, J., Nietschke, M., Revermann, A., Schmid, R., and Jung, K. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 39251-39258). The structure and oligomeric state of the protein was examined in detergent and in lipid bilayers. Blue native gel electrophoresis indicated that CaiT was a trimer in detergent solution. This result was further supported by gel filtration and cross-linking studies. Electron microscopy and single particle analysis of the protein showed a triangular structure of three masses or two parallel elongated densities. Reconstitution of CaiT into lipid bilayers yielded two-dimensional crystals that indicated that CaiT was a trimer in the membrane, similar to its homologue BetP. The implications of the trimeric structure on the function of CaiT are discussed.
The mitochondrial respiratory chain consists of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex-I), succinate:ubiquinone reductase (Complex-II), ubiquinol:cytochrome c reductase (Complex-III), cytochrome c oxidase (Complex-IV) and cytochrome c as an electron mediator between Complex-III and Complex-IV. Paracoccus denitrificans membranes were used as a model system for the association of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. More than 50 years ago, a model was given for a supercomplex assembly formed by stable associations between these complexes. This model gradually shifted by the model of random diffusion given by Hackenbrock et al. 1986 Different independent approaches were used to further analyze this situation in a native membrane environment, thus avoiding any perturbation caused by detergent solubilization: (a) measuring the distance and orientation of the different complexes by multi-frequency EPR Spectroscopy we started to analyze simple system, the interaction between CuA fragment derived from P. denitrificans and various c type cytochrome by Pulsed X band and G band (180 GHz) EPR. Partner proteins for the CuA (excess negative surface charge) were (i) horse heart cytochrome c which contain a large number of positive charges in heme crevice,(ii) the cytochrome c552 soluble fragment (physiological electron donor and have positive charges), and as a control (iii) the cytochrome c1 soluble fragment (negative surface potential, derived from bc1 complex) The measurements were performed at several magnetic field positions varying temperature between 5 to 30 K. Both the X band and the high-field measurements show the existence of a strong relaxation enhancement of the CuA by the specific binding of the P. denitrificans cytochrome c552 and horse heart cytochrome c. This relaxation enhancement is dependent on temperature and provides information about the distance and relative orientation of the two interacting spins within this protein-protein complex. (b) For quantitative information about lateral diffusion of cytochrome c oxidase in the native membrane Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) was used. In this experiment, diffusion coefficients for oxidase differ in the case of supercomplex for wild type membrane and for two deletion mutants lacking either Complex-I or Complex-III. (c) The optical absorption spectroscopy at microsecond level resolution was tried for the translational mobility of oxidase in membrane vesicles. Due to the presence of different hemes in the native membrane, carbon monoxide (CO) used as a probe for the experiment. The optimization of the experimental conditions were carried out to get the optimal signal.
The development of resistance to multiple drugs is a major problem in treatment of number of infectious diseases and cancer. The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is based on the synergetic interplay of a number of mechanisms such as target inactivation, target alteration, prevention of drug influx as well as active extrusion of drugs from the cell. The latter is mediated by over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps. The first discovered and the best characterized until now the human MDR transporter is P-glycoprotein. It is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and acts as an active transporter for a variety of anticancer agents using the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. The closest structure and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein found in bacteria is LmrA from Lactococcus lactis. The major goals of this work are to establish the selective isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis, to optimize LmrA sample preparation for solid-state NMR, and finally to perform first solidstate NMR investigations on LmrA shedding light on its catalytic cycle and substrate binding. For a long time the solid-state NMR applications to biological science has been limited to investigation of small molecules mostly. Recently, the solid-state NMR methods have shown potential for structuraland non-perturbing, site directed functional studies of large membrane proteins as well as ligands bound to them. However, to our knowledge neither selective isotope amino acid labelling of any ABC transporter, nor NMR investigations on full-length ABC transporter have been reported to date. Solidstate NMR experiments on a membrane protein require reconstitution of purified proteins into a membrane environment at a high density and either isotopic enrichment of the protein or bound drugs or inhibitors. Therefore, the large quantities of LmrA reconstituted at a high density in lipid membranes, sufficient for advanced NMR studies have been produced and its functional state in reconstituted form has been assessed. In the next step, a procedure for cost effective selective amino acids isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis has been established. Using this protocol deuterium alanine labelled LmrA reconstituted into E. coli liposomes has been prepared. Deuterium NMR has been used extensively to assess the proteins dynamics in past. However, it has never been applied to ABC transporter. Here, we report 2H NMR on selective alanine isotope labelled LmrA which has been used to shed light on the dynamics changes in the protein occurred under AMP-PNP, non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, binding and in ATP/ADP-Vanadate trapped state. It has been found that the major conformation changes affecting the protein motional characteristics occur in the ATP binding domains but not in the transmembrane domains. Additionally, the binding of several substrates to LmrA has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by 19F and 31P solid-state NMR. The binding constants for several LmrA substrates have been obtained by fitting the concentration dependant tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence quenching curves. Based on the fluorescence studies and solid-state NMR data, the conformation changes in LmrA under substrate binding have been discussed. In addition, the preferable location of nine LmrA and P-glycoprotein substrates within the model membrane has been studied via 1H-MAS-NOESY-NMR. The results have been interpreted with respect to LmrA and P-glycoprotein binding site accessibility from the membrane interface region.
Membranes are essential for life, because a cell must separate itself from the environment to keep its molecules from dissipating away and also must keep out foreign molecules that disturb them or their cell components. However, the cell must communicate with the environment and adapt to the external conditions, needs to pump in nutrients and release toxic products of its metabolism. Membrane proteins present in the membranes of the cell and cell organelles, help the cell to gather information about the environment and perform various biological processes. Membrane proteins perform a wide range of biological functions including respiration, signal transduction and transport. Despite their high importance in biological function, only few structures have been determined because of the difficulties in producing high amounts of membrane proteins and obtaining good quality crystals. This Ph. D. thesis involves the study of different kinds of cytochrome oxidases and a membrane anchored cytochrome oxidase electron donor. Though structures of many cytochrome oxidases are known to date, there exist many different types of oxidases in different organisms, which help the organism to survive under unfavorable environmental conditions. The structural differences between these terminal oxidases which make the organism to survive in extreme environments are unclear. To investigate these, structures of different types of oxidases are necessary. Therefore, we are interested in revealing the structural details of different types of oxidases. The different types of oxidase I worked with were the caa3 HiPIP:oxygen oxidoreductase from Rhodothermus marinus, the aa3-type quinol oxidase from Acidianus ambivalens and bd-type quinol oxidase from three different organisms (Escherichia coli, Bacillus thermodenitrificans and Aquifex aeolicus). Besides the protein from E. coli all other proteins are from thermophilic organisms from which the proteins obtained are generally believed to be highly stable. The presence of a high content of charged amino acids that enhances the occurrence of salt bridges contributes to the stability of thermophilic proteins. ....
Host cells infected with obligate intracellular bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis are profoundly resistant to diverse apoptotic stimuli. The molecular mechanisms underlying the block in apoptotic signaling of infected cells is not well understood. Here we investigated the molecular mechanism by which apoptosis induced via the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor is prevented in infected epithelial cells. Infection with C. trachomatis leads to the up-regulation of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis (cIAP)-2, and interfering with cIAP-2 up-regulation sensitized infected cells for TNF-induced apoptosis. Interestingly, besides cIAP-2, cIAP-1 and X-linked IAP, although not differentially regulated by infection, are required to maintain apoptosis resistance in infected cells. We detected that IAPs are constitutively organized in heteromeric complexes and small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of one of these IAPs affects the stability of another IAP. In particular, the stability of cIAP-2 is modulated by the presence of X-linked IAP and their interaction is stabilized in infected cells. Our observations suggest that IAPs are functional and stable as heteromers, a thus far undiscovered mechanism of IAP regulation and its role in modulation of apoptosis.
Riboswitches are highly structured elements in the 50-untranslated regions (50-UTRs) of messenger RNA that control gene expression by specifically binding to small metabolite molecules. They consist of an aptamer domain responsible for ligand binding and an expression platform. Ligand binding in the aptamer domain leads to conformational changes in the expression platform that result in transcription termination or abolish ribosome binding. The guanine riboswitch binds with high-specificity to guanine and hypoxanthine and is among the smallest riboswitches described so far. The X-ray-structure of its aptamer domain in complex with guanine/ hypoxanthine reveals an intricate RNA-fold consisting of a three-helix junction stabilized by longrange base pairing interactions. We analyzed the conformational transitions of the aptamer domain induced by binding of hypoxanthine using highresolution NMR-spectroscopy in solution. We found that the long-range base pairing interactions are already present in the free RNA and preorganize its global fold. The ligand binding core region is lacking hydrogen bonding interactions and therefore likely to be unstructured in the absence of ligand. Mg2+-ions are not essential for ligand binding and do not change the structure of the RNA-ligand complex but stabilize the structure at elevated temperatures. We identified a mutant RNA where the long-range base pairing interactions are disrupted in the free form of the RNA but form upon ligand binding in an Mg2+-dependent fashion. The tertiary interaction motif is stable outside the riboswitch context.
P2X receptors are ligand (ATP)-gated ion channels that open an intrinsic cation permeable pathway in response to extracellular ATP released from both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. P2X receptors are abundantly distributed and mediate a wide variety of physiological functions, ranging from fast synaptic transmission in the central, peripheral, and enteric nervous system, to proinflammatory cytokine release from immune cells. The primary aim of this work was to elucidate the pathway that leads to the finally assembled trimeric P2X receptors, including the assessment of a possible role of ER chaperones and folding factors in this process. Additionally, the study was conducted to investigate the various ER quality control processes involved in the selection of “properly folded and assembled” P2X receptors that are suitable for the surface expression.
The structural analysis of the redox complex between the soluble cytochrome c552 and the membrane-integral cytochrome ba3 oxidase of Thermus thermophilus is complicated by the transient nature of this protein-protein interaction. Using NMR-based chemical shift perturbation mapping, however, we identified the contact regions between cytochrome c552 and the CuA domain, the fully functional water-soluble fragment of subunit II of the ba3 oxidase. First we determined the complete backbone resonance assignments of both proteins for each redox state. Subsequently, two-dimensional [15N,1H]TROSY spectra recorded for each redox partner both in free and complexed state indicated those surface residues affected by complex formation between the two proteins. This chemical shift analysis performed for both redox states provided a topological description of the contact surface on each partner molecule. Remarkably, very pronounced indirect effects, which were observed on the back side of the heme cleft only in the reduced state, suggested that alterations of the electron distribution in the porphyrin ring due to formation of the protein-protein complex are apparently sensed even beyond the heme propionate groups. The contact residues of each redox partner, as derived from the chemical shift perturbation mapping, were employed for a protein-protein docking calculation that provided a structure ensemble of 10 closely related conformers representing the complex between cytochrome c552 and the CuA domain. Based on these structures, the electron transfer pathway from the heme of cytochrome c552 to the CuA center of the ba3 oxidase has been predicted.
Background: Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is an established method for parameter optimization. It represents a population-based adaptive optimization technique that is influenced by several "strategy parameters". Choosing reasonable parameter values for the PSO is crucial for its convergence behavior, and depends on the optimization task. We present a method for parameter meta-optimization based on PSO and its application to neural network training. The concept of the Optimized Particle Swarm Optimization (OPSO) is to optimize the free parameters of the PSO by having swarms within a swarm. We assessed the performance of the OPSO method on a set of five artificial fitness functions and compared it to the performance of two popular PSO implementations. Results: Our results indicate that PSO performance can be improved if meta-optimized parameter sets are applied. In addition, we could improve optimization speed and quality on the other PSO methods in the majority of our experiments. We applied the OPSO method to neural network training with the aim to build a quantitative model for predicting blood-brain barrier permeation of small organic molecules. On average, training time decreased by a factor of four and two in comparison to the other PSO methods, respectively. By applying the OPSO method, a prediction model showing good correlation with training-, test- and validation data was obtained. Conclusion: Optimizing the free parameters of the PSO method can result in performance gain. The OPSO approach yields parameter combinations improving overall optimization performance. Its conceptual simplicity makes implementing the method a straightforward task.