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Background: The apoptosis-inducing serine protease granzyme B (GrB) is an important factor contributing to lysis of target cells by cytotoxic lymphocytes. Expression of enzymatically active GrB in recombinant form is a prerequisite for functional analysis and application of GrB for therapeutic purposes. Methods and Findings: We investigated the influence of bacterial maltose-binding protein (MBP) fused to GrB via a synthetic furin recognition motif on the expression of the MBP fusion protein also containing an N-terminal alpha-factor signal peptide in the yeast Pichia pastoris. MBP markedly enhanced the amount of GrB secreted into culture supernatant, which was not the case when GrB was fused to GST. MBP-GrB fusion protein was cleaved during secretion by an endogenous furin-like proteolytic activity in vivo, liberating enzymatically active GrB without the need of subsequent in vitro processing. Similar results were obtained upon expression of a recombinant fragment of the ErbB2/HER2 receptor protein or GST as MBP fusions. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that combination of MBP as a solubility enhancer with specific in vivo cleavage augments secretion of processed and functionally active proteins from yeast. This strategy may be generally applicable to improve folding and increase yields of recombinant proteins.
Although a variety of genetic strategies have been developed to inhibit HIV replication, few direct comparisons of the efficacy of these inhibitors have been carried out. Moreover, most studies have not examined whether genetic inhibitors are able to induce a survival advantage that results in an expansion of genetically-modified cells following HIV infection. We evaluated the efficacy of three leading genetic strategies to inhibit HIV replication: 1) an HIV-1 tat/rev-specific small hairpin (sh) RNA; 2) an RNA antisense gene specific for the HIV-1 envelope; and 3) a viral entry inhibitor, maC46. In stably transduced cell lines selected such that >95% of cells expressed the genetic inhibitor, the RNA antisense envelope and viral entry inhibitor maC46 provided the strongest inhibition of HIV-1 replication. However, when mixed populations of transduced and untransduced cells were challenged with HIV-1, the maC46 fusion inhibitor resulted in highly efficient positive selection of transduced cells, an effect that was evident even in mixed populations containing as few as 1% maC46-expressing cells. The selective advantage of the maC46 fusion inhibitor was also observed in HIV-1-infected cultures of primary T lymphocytes as well as in HIV-1-infected humanized mice. These results demonstrate robust inhibition of HIV replication with the fusion inhibitor maC46 and the antisense Env inhibitor, and importantly, a survival advantage of cells expressing the maC46 fusion inhibitor both in vitro and in vivo. Evaluation of the ability of genetic inhibitors of HIV-1 replication to confer a survival advantage on genetically-modified cells provides unique information not provided by standard techniques that may be important in the in vivo efficacy of these genes.
Introduction: Amniotic fluid harbors cells indicative of all three germ layers, and pluripotent fetal amniotic fluid stem cells (AFSs) are considered potentially valuable for applications in cellular therapy and tissue engineering. We investigated whether it is possible to direct the cell fate of AFSs in vivo by transplantation experiments into a particular microenvironment, the mammary fat pad. This microenvironment provides the prerequisites to study stem cell function and the communication between mesenchymal and epithelial cells. On clearance of the endogenous epithelium, the ductal tree can be reconstituted by the transfer of exogenously provided mammary stem cells. Analogously, exogenously provided stem cells from other tissues can be investigated for their potential to contribute to mammary gland regeneration. Methods: We derived pluripotent murine AFSs, measured the expression of stem cell markers, and confirmed their in vitro differentiation potential. AFSs were transplanted into cleared and non cleared fat pads of immunocompromised mice to evaluate their ability to assume particular cell fates under the instructive conditions of the fat-pad microenvironment and the hormonal stimulation during pregnancy. Results: Transplantation of AFSs into cleared fat pads alone or in the presence of exogenous mammary epithelial cells caused their differentiation into stroma and adipocytes and replaced endogenous mesenchymal components surrounding the ducts in co-transplantation experiments. Similarly, transplantation of AFSs into fat pads that had not been previously cleared led to AFS-derived stromal cells surrounding the elongating endogenous ducts. AFSs expressed the marker protein α-SMA, but did not integrate into the myoepithelial cell layer of the ducts in virgin mice. With pregnancy, a small number of AFS-derived cells were present in acinar structures. Conclusions: Our data demonstrate that the microenvironmental cues of the mammary fat pad cause AFSs to participate in mammary gland regeneration by providing mesenchymal components to emerging glandular structures, but do not incorporate or differentiate into ductal epithelial cells.
Background: Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in childhood and has a poor prognosis. Here we assessed the capability of ex vivo expanded cytokine-induced killer cells to lyse both alveolar and embryonic rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines and investigated the mechanisms involved.
Design and Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from six healthy donors were used to generate and expand cytokine-induced killer cells. The phenotype and composition of these cells were determined by multiparameter flow cytometry, while their cytotoxic effect against rhabdomyosarcoma cells was evaluated by a europium release assay.
Results: Cytokine-induced killer cells efficiently lysed cells from both rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines. Antibody-mediated masking of either NKG2D molecule on cytokine-induced killer cells or its ligands on rhabdomyosarcoma cells (major histocompatibility antigen related chain A and B and UL16 binding protein 2) diminished this effect by 50%, suggesting a major role for the NKG2D molecule in rhabdomyosarcoma cell killing. No effect was observed after blocking CD11a, CD3 or TCRαβ molecules on cytokine-induced killer cells or CD1d on rhabdomyosar-coma cells. Remarkably, cytokine-induced killer cells used tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to activate caspase-3, as the main caspase responsible for the execution of apoptosis. Accordingly, blocking TRAIL receptors on embryonic rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines significantly reduced the anti-tumor effect of cytokine-induced killer cells. About 50% of T cells within the cytokine-induced killer population had an effector memory phenotype, 20% had a naïve phenotype and approximately 30% of the cells had a central memory phenotype. In addition, cytokine-induced killer cells expressed low levels of activation-induced markers CD69 and CD137 and demonstrated a low alloreactive potential.
Conclusions: Our data suggest that cytokine-induced killer cells may be used as a novel adoptive immunotherapy for the treatment of patients with rhabdomyosarcoma after allogeneic stem cell transplantation.
Für eine erfolgreiche Gentherapie ist zunächst ein effizientes Gentransfersystem nötig, das das Transgen in möglichst vielen Zellen einbaut und es aktiv hält. Damit sich dann der Anteil der geschützten Zellen vergrößert, muss eine Selektivität der genmodifizierten Zellen gegenüber den nativen Zellen gegeben sein, wobei die Sicherheit nicht außer Acht gelassen werden darf, da ein ungünstiger Einbau des Transgens eine Insertionsmutagenese und somit Tumoren induzieren kann. Der durch die Arbeitsgruppe von Laer entwickelte retrovirale Vektor M87o codiert den membranständigen Fusionsinhibitor maC46 (membran-anchored C-Peptid 46), der den Eintritt von HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) in die Zielzelle effektiv verhindert. Diese Gentherapie mit M87o wurde in einer klinischen Studie an T-Lymphozyten von 10 weit fortgeschrittenen AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)-Patienten durchgeführt, wobei die Therapie gut verträglich war und keine Toxizität zeigte. Allerdings hatten die Patienten auch keinen klaren Vorteil von der Therapie. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden SIN Vektoren (Self-inactivating Vektoren) in 5 verschiedenen Konstruktionen getestet, um die optimale Vektordesign zu ermitteln und eine langfristige hohe Expression zu ermöglichen. Da die SIN Vektoren im Vergleich zu konventionellen gammaretroviralen Vektoren ein geringeres Risiko bezüglich der Insertionsmutagenese aufweisen, stellen sie ein sichereres Vektorsystem dar. Um eine bessere Transgenexpression zu erzielen, wurde in den SIN Vektoren entweder ein zellulärer Promotor oder ein viraler SFFV (spleen focus forming virus) als internen Promotor verwendet. Zusätzliche regulatorische Elemente, wie wPRE (Woodchuck Posttranscriptional Regulatory Element), cHS4 (chicken Hypersensitive Site) Insulator und SAR (Scaffold Attachment Region) Element wurden dann in unterschiedlichen Kombinationen zu stärkeren und langanhaltenden Expressionen integriert, wobei wPRE die RNA Prozessierung verbessert und somit die RNA Stabilität erhöht und SAR und cHS4 Insulator dem Silencing entgegenwirken und so die Expression aufrechterhalten. Diese fünf SIN Konfigurationen wurden untereinander und mit dem klassischen gammaretroviralen Vektor M87o bezüglich des Titers, der Expressionsstärke und der Langzeit-Genexpression verglichen. Dazu wurden zunächst humane T-Zelllinien PM-1 und primäre humane T-Zellen als Testzellen verwendet. Die Versuche wurden dann mit murinen T-Zellen wiederholt, die in die immundefiziten Mäuse transplantiert wurden, um die Genexpression in vivo weiter zu verfolgen. Die SIN Konstrukte zeigten jedoch eine deutlich schwächere Expression als die LTR (Long Terminal Repeat)-getriebene Vektoren und nur ein Konstrukt mit dem viralen Promotor und wPRE zeigte eine annähernd so hohe Expression wie die konventionellen Vektoren. Während der virale SFFV Promotor eine höhere Expressionsstärke gegenüber dem zellulären EF1α (Elongationsfaktor 1 alpha) Promotor zeigte, hatte der cHS4 Insulator nur geringfügige Einflüsse sowohl auf den Titer als auch auf die Expressionsstärke. Der Vektor mit dem SAR-Element zeigte zwar die geringsten Titer und Expressionsstärke, aber in Langzeitbeobachtung wies er sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo eine relativ konstante Anzahl von transgenpositiven Zellen auf. SIN Vektoren, in denen mit einer Kombination von wPRE und SAR-Element die RNA Prozessierung verbessert und das methylationsbedingte Silencing verhindert wird, könnten eine weitere Optimierungsmöglichkeit des Gentransfersystems bei der Gentherapie darstellen.
Gene-modified autologous hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) can provide ample clinical benefits to subjects suffering from X-linked chronic granulomatous disease (X-CGD), a rare inherited immunodeficiency characterized by recurrent, often life-threatening bacterial and fungal infections. Here we report on the molecular and cellular events observed in two young adults with X-CGD treated by gene therapy in 2004. After the initial resolution of bacterial and fungal infections, both subjects showed silencing of transgene expression due to methylation of the viral promoter, and myelodysplasia with monosomy 7 as a result of insertional activation of ecotropic viral integration site 1 (EVI1). One subject died from overwhelming sepsis 27 months after gene therapy, whereas a second subject underwent an allogeneic HSC transplantation. Our data show that forced overexpression of EVI1 in human cells disrupts normal centrosome duplication, linking EVI1 activation to the development of genomic instability, monosomy 7 and clonal progression toward myelodysplasia.