Refine
Year of publication
- 2010 (98) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (49)
- Article (41)
- Book (4)
- Contribution to a Periodical (4)
Has Fulltext
- yes (98) (remove)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (98)
Keywords
- Arzneimitteldesign (2)
- Computational chemistry (2)
- aging (2)
- Alignment <Biochemie> (1)
- Anpassung (1)
- Apoptose (1)
- Bacteria (1)
- CDK1 Kinase (1)
- Computer simulation (1)
- Computersimulation (1)
Institute
- Biowissenschaften (98) (remove)
Mit Blut unterzeichnete Dr. Faust seinen zweifelhaften Pakt mit dem Teufel. In der Kulturgeschichte des Menschen hat Blut von jeher eine mystisch aufgeladene Rolle gehabt, die sich in religiösen Ritualen, Heilpraktiken, Liebes- und Freundschaftsbünden niederschlug. Roland Prinzinger beginnt mit einigen Schlaglichtern auf die vielfältigen Bedeutungen des Blutes, die heute noch mitschwingen, wenn wir uns dem Thema nähern. Als Biologe erklärt er dann am Beispiel der Diagnostik bei Vögeln, warum Blut auch aus naturwissenschaftlicher Sicht ein »ganz besonderer Saft« ist.
We solved the crystal structure of a novel type of c-ring isolated from Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4 at 2.5 Å, revealing a cylinder with a tridecameric stoichiometry, a central pore, and an overall shape that is distinct from those reported thus far. Within the groove of two neighboring c-subunits, the conserved glutamate of the outer helix shares the proton with a bound water molecule which itself is coordinated by three other amino acids of outer helices. Although none of the inner helices contributes to ion binding and the glutamate has no other hydrogen bonding partner than the water oxygen, the site remains in a stable, ion-locked conformation that represents the functional state present at the c-ring/membrane interface during rotation. This structure reveals a new, third type of ion coordination in ATP synthases. It appears in the ion binding site of an alkaliphile in which it represents a finely tuned adaptation of the proton affinity during the reaction cycle. Formal Correction: This article has been formally corrected to address the following errors. 1. The images for Figures S2 and S3 were incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Figure S2 should be Figure S3, and the image that appears as Figure S3 should be Figure S2. The figure legends appear in the correct order. Please view the correct... (read formal correction) 2. The images for Figures S2 and S3 were incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Figure S2 should be Figure S3, and the image that appears as Figure S3 should be Figure S2. The figure legends appear in the correct order. Please view the correct... (read formal correction)
One of the key functions of blood vessels is to transport nutrients and oxygen to distant tissues and organs in the body. When blood supply is insufficient, new vessels form to meet the metabolic tissue demands and to re-establish cellular homeostasis. Expansion of the vascular network through sprouting angiogenesis requires the specification of ECs into leading (sprouting) tip and following (non-sprouting) stalk cells. Attracted by guidance cues tip cells dynamically extend and retract filopodia to navigate the nascent vessel sprout, whereas trailing stalk cells proliferate to form the extending vascular tube. All of these processes are under the control of environmental signals (e.g. hypoxia, metabolism) and numerous cytokines and peptide growth factors. The Dll4/Notch pathway coordinates several critical steps of angiogenic blood vessel growth. Even subtle alterations in Notch activity can profoundly influence endothelial cell behavior and blood vessel formation, yet little is known about the intrinsic regulation and dynamics of Notch signaling in endothelial cells. In addition, it remains an open question, how different growth factor signals impinging on sprouting ECs are coordinated with local environmental cues originating from nutrient-deprived, hypoxic tissue to achieve a balanced endothelial cell response. Acetylation of lysines is a critical posttranslational modification of histones, which acts as an important regulatory mechanism to control chromatin structure and gene transcription. In addition to histones, several non-histone proteins are targeted for acetylation reversible acetylation is emerging as a fundamental regulatory mechanism to control protein function, interaction and stability. Previous studies from our group identified the NAD+-dependent deacetylase SIRT1 as a key regulator of blood vessel growth controlling endothelial angiogenic responses. These studies revealed that SIRT1 is highly expressed in the vascular endothelium during blood vessel development, where it controls the angiogenic activity of endothelial cells. Moreover, in this work SIRT1 has been shown to control the activity of key regulators of cardiovascular homeostasis such as eNOS, Foxo1 and p53. The present study describes that SIRT1 antagonizes Notch signaling by deacetylating the Notch intracellular domain (NICD). We showed that loss of SIRT1 enhances DLL4-induced endothelial Notch responses as assessed by different luciferase responsive elements as well as transcriptional analysis of Notch endogenous target genes activation. Conversely, SIRT1 gain of function by overexpression of pharmacological activation decreases induction of Notch targets in response to DLL4 stimulation. We also showed that the NICD can be directly acetylated by PC AF and p300 and that SIRT1 promotes deacetylation of NICD. We have identified 14 lysines that are targeted for acetylation and their mutation abolishes the effects of SIRT1 of Notch responses. Furthermore, over-expression or activation of SIRT1 significantly reduces the levels of NICD protein. Moreover, SIRT1-mediated NICD degradation can be reversed by blockade of the proteasome suggesting a mechanism resulting from ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Indeed, we have shown that SIRT1 knockdown or pharmacological inhibition decreased NICD ubiquitination. We propose a novel molecular mechanism of modulation of the amplitude and duration of Notch responses in which acetylation increases NICD stability and therefore permanence at the promoters, while SIRT1, by inducing NICD degradation through its deacetylation, shortens Notch responses. In order to evaluate the physiological relevance of our findings we used different models in which the Notch functions during blood vessel formation have been extensively characterized. First, retinal angiogenesis in mice lacking SIRT1 activity shows decreased branching and reduced endothelial proliferation, similar to what happens after Notch gain of function mutations. ECs from these mice exhibit increased expression of Notch target genes. Second, these results were reproducible during intersomitic vessel growth in sirt1-deficient zebrafish. In both models, the defects could be partially rescued by inhibition of Notch activation. Third, we used an in vitro model of vessel sprouting from differentiating embryonic bodies in response to VEGF in a collagen matrix. Our results showed that Sirt1-deficient cells shows impaired sprouting which correlated with increased NICD levels. In addition, when in competition with wild-type cells in this assay, Sirt1-deficient cells are more prone to occupy the stalk cell position. Taken together, our study identifies reversible acetylation of NICD as a novel molecular mechanism to adapt the dynamics of Notch signaling and suggest that SIRT1 acts as a rheostat to fine-tune endothelial Notch responses. The NAD+-dependent feature of SIRT1 activity possibly links endothelial Notch responses to environmental cues and metabolic changes during nutrient deprivation in ischemic environments or upon other cellular stresses.
In the adult mammalian central nervous system, two defined neurogenic regions retain the capacity to generate new neurons throughout adulthood, namely the subependymal zone (SEZ) at the lateral ventricles and the subgranular layer of the hippocampus (SGL). Adult neurogenesis consists of a whole set of events including proliferation, fate specification, migration, survival and finally synaptic integration of newly born neurons. Each of these events is controlled by the interplay of numerous factors. In this study two signalling systems were analysed with regard to their functional role in adult neurogenesis in vivo, namely the purinergic system and the growth factor EGF. Neither short- nor long-term application of the P2Y receptor agonists UTP and ADPβS and the P2Y receptor antagonist suramin into the lateral ventricle of adult mice altered cell responses as compared to vehicle controls in vivo. In contrast, analysis of the expansion rates of cultured neural stem cells (NSCs) from knockout mice revealed a strong increase in the number of NSCs from NTPDase2-/- mice, whereas cell numbers of NSCs from P2Y1-/- and P2Y2-/- mice were significantly reduced in comparison to wildtype levels. Notably, in vivo proliferation rates were potently elevated in the SGL and the SEZ of NTPDase2-deficient mice. However, in vivo proliferation in both neurogenic niches of the single receptor knockout mice P2Y1-/- and P2Y2-/- and P2Y1-/- P2Y2-/-double-knockout mice did not differ significantly from the wildtype. In mice lacking the P2Y2 receptor the survival of newly born neurons in the hippocampal granule cell layer was significantly increased. These data provide the first line of evidence that purinergic signalling is involved in the control of neural stem cells behaviour not only in vitro but also in vivo. In order to further characterise the role of epidermal growth factor (EGF) in adult neurogenesis, transit amplifying precursors (TAPs) and type B astrocytes were identified as EGF-responsive cell populations following ventricular EGF injection, whereas ependymal cells, neuroblasts and NG2-positive cells did not or only to a minor extent respond to EGF injection. These EGF-responsive cell populations were found on both, the septal as well as striatal lateral ventricle walls. Long-term ventricular EGF infusion for 6d, 1. increased cell proliferation of both ventricle walls revealing a gradient along the rostro-caudal axis, 2. altered the balance between neuronal and macroglial cell fates to generate oligodendrocyte precursors and 3. lead to an entire remodelling of the classical architecture of the SEZ.
Während der vergangenen Jahrzehnte stieg die durchschnittliche Lebenserwartung der Bevölkerung in den westlichen Industrieländern durch die Verbesserung der allgemeinen Lebensbedingungen, insbesondere durch die Fortschritte in der Hygiene und der Medizin sowie stabile politische Verhältnisse, kontinuierlich an. Aufgrund dieser demographischen Entwicklung zu einer zunehmend älter werdenden Gesellschaft nimmt auch das Auftreten von progressiven, altersabhängigen Erkrankungen, wie zum Beispiel der Parkinson‟schen Krankheit zu. Dieser Trend stellt sowohl für die betroffenen Patienten und ihre Angehörigen als auch für die Gesundheits- und Sozialsysteme eine gewaltige und kostenintensive Herausforderung dar. Um wirkungsvolle Therapien entwickeln zu können, die früh im Krankheitsverlauf eingreifen und die Manifestation der Erkrankung verhindern oder verzögern beziehungs-weise die darauf abzielen, die Symptome der Erkrankung nach deren Manifestation zu lindern, ist es unerlässlich, die diesen progressiven, altersabhängigen Krankheiten zugrundeliegenden Mechanismen zu erforschen und entsprechende krankheitsspezifische, molekulare Biomarker zu identifizieren. Darüber hinaus stellt die Identifizierung solcher Biomarker einen wichtigen Ansatzpunkt für die klinische Diagnostik und Therapeutik sowie für die Entwicklung neuer therapeutischer Behandlungsstrategien dar. Das subzellulär vorwiegend präsynaptisch lokalisierte Protein alpha-Synuklein blieb in den Jahren nach seiner Erstbeschreibung 1988 durch Luc Maroteaux von der biomedizinischen Forschung weitgehend unbeachtet. Erst die Assoziationen von unterschiedlichen Mutationen des alpha-Synuklein-Gens mit seltenen, autosomal-dominant vererbten, monogenetischen Varianten der Parkinson‟schen Krankheit (PARK1 und PARK4) seit 1997 sowie die Identifizierung des Proteins im Jahre 1998 als Hauptbestandteil von intrazellulären Proteinaggregaten (Lewy-Körpern und Lewy-Neuriten), deren Vorkommen charakteristisch für progressive, neurodegenerative und unter dem Sammelbegriff „Synukleinopathien“ klassifizierte Erkrankungen (wie beispielsweise auch die häufigen, sporadischen Formen der Parkinson‟schen Krankheit) ist, ließen das alpha-Synuklein in den Fokus der biomedizinischen Forschung rücken. Trotz intensiver Bemühungen der weltweiten Forschungsgemeinschaft konnten seitdem in den vergangenen 13 Jahren die physiologischen Funktionen von alpha-Synuklein und die den unterschiedlichen Synukleinopathien zugrundeliegenden, molekularen pathophysiologischen Mechanismen nicht genau identifiziert werden. Stattdessen führte die intensive Forschung an alpha-Synuklein mit den unterschiedlichsten experimentellen Herangehensweisen und Modellsystemen zu verschiedenen und teilweise kontroversen Hypothesen und Theorien über dessen physiologische Funktion und pathophysiologische Wirkungsweisen. Die in dieser Dissertationschrift dargestellten experimentellen Untersuchungen wurden an zwei speziellen transgenen Mausmodellen durchgeführt, die entweder einen vollständigen Mangel (= „knockout“; KO) des alpha-Synuklein-Proteins oder eine transgene Überexpression von humanem, A53T-mutierten alpha-Synuklein aufwiesen. Das Hauptziel der dargestellten Studien war es, neue Erkenntnisse hinsichtlich der physiologischen Funktionen des alpha-Synuklein-Proteins, beziehungsweise der krankheits-relevanten, pathophysiologischen Mechanismen der den familiären PARK1- und PARK4-Varianten der Parkinson‟schen Krankheit zugrundeliegenden alpha-Synuklein-Mutationen (Substitution von Alanin durch Threonin an Position 53 der Aminosäuresequenz (A53T; PARK1) sowie Überexpression (Genduplikation/-triplikation; PARK4)) zu gewinnen...
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) ist ein gram-negatives Bakterium, das die menschliche Magenmukosa kolonisieren kann. Ca. 50 % der Weltbevölkerung sind mit diesem Erreger infiziert, wobei er ohne medizinische Behandlung über Jahrzehnte in seinem Wirt persistieren kann. Das Bakterium gilt als eine der häufigsten Ursachen bei der Entwicklung von schweren gastrointestinalen Erkrankungen wie chronischer Gastritis und Gastral- oder Duodenalulkus. Darüber hinaus kann eine Infektion aber auch zu einem gastralen Adenokarzinom oder dem MALT- („mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue“) Lymphom führen. Bestimmte H. pylori-Stämme können über ein Typ IV Sekretionssystem (T4SS) das bakterielle Protein CagA („cytotoxin-assoziiertes Gen A“) in die Wirtszelle injizieren und dadurch Signaltransduktionswege stören, die die Morphologie und Mobilität der infizierten Wirtszelle drastisch verändern. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde die putative Phosphorylierung der Proteine VASP („Vasodilator-stimuliertes Phosphoprotein“) und α-Actinin-4 untersucht, welche beide regulatorische Funktionen im Zytoskelett der Wirtszelle ausüben. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit sollte der Einfluss von H. pylori auf diese Proteine analysiert werden, sowie die daraus resultierenden zellulären Auswirkungen. Es konnte verifiziert werden, dass H. pylori die Phosphorylierung der drei bekannten Phosphorylierungsstellen von VASP, bzw. eine Tyrosin-Phosphorylierung von α-Actinin-4 (ACTN4) induziert. Weiterhin zeigte sich, dass beide Proteine nach einer Infektion mit dem Bakterium in fokalen Kontaktstellen der Zellen lokalisieren. Zusätzlich lies sich zeigen, dass VASP und α-Actinin-4 eine entscheidende Rolle bei der durch H. pylori-induzierten Zellelongation spielen, da eine Herunterregulation der Genexpression von beiden Proteinen über siRNA zu einer Inhibition der morphologischen Veränderungen führte. Die genaueren Studien über VASP zeigten, dass hauptsächlich die Phosphorylierungsstelle VASPSer239 für die H. pylori-induzierte Zellelongation verantwortlich ist und die Phosphorylierung durch die Proteinkinase G (PKG) vermittelt wird. Für α-Actinin-4 konnte in dieser Arbeit des Weiteren gezeigt werden, dass die Kinase c-Abl eine Tyrosin-Phosphorylierung vermitteln kann, wobei die genaue Phosphorylierungsstelle im Protein noch ermittelt werden muss. Durch den Einsatz von H. pylori-Mutanten lies sich darüber hinaus noch zeigen, dass die Phosphorylierung von VASPSer239 und VASPThr278 durch das bakterielle Protein CagA deutlich verstärkt wird. Für die Tyrosin-Phosphorylierung von α-Actinin-4 war CagA sogar ausschlaggebend. Diese neu entdeckten zellulären Zielproteine bei einer H. pylori-Infektion ermöglichen weitere Einblicke in die Deregulation des eukaryotischen Zytoskeletts und möglichen Mechanismen bei der Krebsentstehung.
Durch die Behandlung HIV-positiver Patienten mit einer Kombinationstherapie verschiedener antiviraler Substanzen (HAART = hochaktive antiretrovirale Therapie) kann die Virusreplikation über einen längeren Zeitraum unterdrückt werden. Allerdings hat diese Therapie Limitationen. Die Medikamente verursachen hohe Therapiekosten, haben zum Teil starke Nebenwirkungen und es entstehen mit der Zeit resistente Viren. Eine Alternative besteht in der somatischen Gentherapie der HIV-Infektion. Bei diesen Ansätzen werden Zellen der Patienten genetisch modifiziert, so dass sie ein antivirales Genprodukt exprimieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein membrangebundenes, antivirales C46 Peptid (maC46) sowohl in vitro in Zelllinien und primären humanen T-Zellen als auch in vivo in zwei humanisierten Mausmodellen getestet. Das C46 Peptid entstammt der C-terminalen "heptad repeat" Sequenz des HIV Hüllproteins gp41. C-Peptide wie C46 oder auch T20, welches bereits für die HAART Therapie zugelassen ist, binden während der Fusion des Virus mit der Zielzelle an gp41 und inhibieren so die Fusion. Werden T-Zelllinien oder primäre humane T-Zellen mit einem gammaretroviralen Vektor, der maC46 codiert, transduziert, können sie sehr effizient vor einer Infektion mit HIV geschützt werden [30]. Dieser Vektor wurde bereits in einer klinischen Studie mit T-Zellen von 10 HIV-positiven Patienten getestet [142]. Dabei konnte allerdings kein antiviraler Effekt der Gentherapie beobachtet werden. Hier wurde nun ein lentiviraler Vektor für maC46 (LV-maC46-GFP) verwendet. Lentivirale Vektoren transduzieren im Gegensatz zu gammaretroviralen auch ruhende Zellen, was ein kürzeres ex vivo Aktivierungs- und Transduktionsprotokoll ermöglicht. Außerdem ist für lentivirale Vektoren das Risiko der Transformation der Zelle niedriger als für gammaretrovirale. Für eine mögliche klinische Anwendung sollte es daher tolerierbar sein, für lentivirale Vektoren eine höhere MOI zu verwenden als für gammaretrovirale. Eine höhere Transduktionseffizienz sollte auf der anderen Seite auch eine effektive und langanhaltende Transgenexpression ermöglichen. Zunächst wurde gezeigt, dass sowohl die T-Zelllinie PM-1 als auch primäre humane T-Zellen nach Transduktion mit LV-maC46-GFP vor einer Infektion mit HIV geschützt waren und während der Infektion einer gemischten Kultur einen Selektionsvorteil gegenüber nicht-transduzierten Zellen hatten. Dabei konnte auch durch konfokale Mikroskopie gezeigt werden, dass das Virus die maC46-exprimierenden Zellen nicht injizieren konnte, sondern lediglich auf der Zelloberfläche gebunden wurde. Im Weiteren wurden zwei humanisierte Mausmodelle etabliert, um LV-maC46-GFP in vivo zu testen. Im humanen Immunsystem Mausmodell (HIS-Mausmodell) wurden immundefiziente Mäuse mit humanen Blutstammzellen repopuliert. In den Tieren kam es zu einer de novo Bildung von humanen, reifen T-Lymphozyten durch Thymopoese. Dabei wurden im Blut der Tiere humane, maC46- exprimierende CD4+ T-Zellen detektiert. Nach Infektion der Tiere mit HIV wurden diese T-Zellen depletiert. Es kam allerdings nicht zu einer Anreicherung oder einem selektiven Überleben der genmodifizierten T-Zellen. Eine Erklärung dafür könnte eine gestörte T-Zellhomeostase in den Tieren sein. Das zweite humanisierte Mausmodell (T-Zellmausmodell) verwendete immundefiziente Mäuse, die mit transduzierten humanen T-Zellen repopuliert wurden. Die Infektion mit HIV erfolgte entweder in vitro vor Transplantation der Zellen oder in vivo nach Repopulierung der Tiere. In beiden Fällen konnte ein selektives Überleben maC46-exprimierender CD4+ T-Zellen nach HIV-Infektion beobachtet werden. Im letzten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Weiterentwicklung von maC46, eine sekretierte Variante des C46-Peptids (iSAVE), im T-Zellmausmodell getestet. Ein sekretierter Fusionsinhibitor stellt insofern eine Weiterentwicklung des membrangebundenen dar, als nicht nur die genmodifizierten Zellen, sondern zusätzlich auch nicht-modifizierte Nachbarzellen vor einer Infektion mit HIV geschützt werden könnten. Dadurch erhöht sich auch das Spektrum an möglichen Produzentenzellen für den Fusionsinhibitor. In den hier beschriebenen Experimenten wurden humane T-Zellen entweder mit einem gammaretroviralen (RV-iSAVE) oder einem lentiviralen Vektor (LV-iSAVE) transduziert und die Experssion das iSAVE-Peptids wurde im Serum der Tiere gemessen. In beiden Ansätzen konnte iSAVE Peptid im Serum der Tiere detektiert werden. In weiteren Experimenten sollte nun untersucht werden, ob dieses in vivo sekretierte iSAVE Peptid antiviral aktiv ist und die humanisierten Mäuse vor einer Infektion mit HIV schützen kann.
Elefanten sind die größten landlebenden Säugetiere und werden schon seit Jahrhunderten in Menschenobhut gehalten. In der heutigen Zeit liegt der Schwerpunkt der Elefantenhaltung auf dem Unterbringen dieser anspruchsvollen Tiere in verhaltensgerechten Bedingungen, die auch das Wohlbefinden der Tiere berücksichtigen. Es mangelt jedoch an langfristigen Studien, die Veränderungen im Verhalten und im Wohlbefinden von Elefanten in Menschenobhut erforschen. Vor allem das nächtliche Verhalten fand bisher wenig Beachtung, obwohl Studien im natürlichen Lebensraum als auch in Menschenobhut zeigen, dass Elefanten den größten Teil der Nacht aktiv sind. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich daher auf eine langfristige Überwachung des nächtlichen Verhaltens von Afrikanischen Elefanten und stellt, unter Anwendung chronoethologischer Methoden, die haltungsbedingten Einflüsse auf das Verhaltensmuster dar. Es wurden insgesamt 16 Afrikanische Elefanten (Loxodonta africana) mit Zeitraffer-Videoaufnahmen überwacht, im Opel-Zoo in Kronberg 600 Nächte, im Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Wien 300 Nächte und im Wuppertaler Zoo 70 Nächte. Dies ergibt bei einer Erfassungszeit von jeweils 16:00 Uhr bis 8:00 Uhr für alle Elefanten zusammen eine Summe von 64.320 Stunden Verhaltensregistrierung. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass das nächtliche Verhalten von Elefanten durch die Haltungsbedingungen beeinflusst wird. Drei Haltungssysteme konnten zum ersten Mal in einer Studie direkt miteinander verglichen und Unterschiede aufgezeigt werden. Auch eine saisonale Abhängigkeit des nächtlichen Verhaltens konnte beobachtet werden. Es stellte sich heraus, dass Elefanten im Winter mehr und früher schlafen als im Sommer. Dies muss im nächtlichen Management berücksichtigt werden. Soziale Kontakte beeinflussen das nächtliche Verhalten ebenfalls. Es konnte erstmals beschrieben werden, dass Elefanten sich gegenseitig aus dem „Schlaf im Liegen“ aufwecken und dieses „Aufwecken“ einen Einfluss auf die Schlafdauer im Liegen hat. Die Verfügbarkeit von Nahrung ist ebenfalls ein wichtiger Faktor. Es konnte gezeigt werden, wie Elefanten zu unterschiedlichen Zeiten der Nacht auf zusätzliche Futtergaben reagieren und dass sie zu bestimmten Zeiten durch das zusätzliche Nahrungsangebot gestört werden. Unter Anwendung chronoethologischer Methoden konnte herausgearbeitet werden, dass Störungen im nächtlichen Verhaltensmuster durch vermehrtes „Weben“ erhöhte „Lokomotion“ und Reduzierung des Schlafverhaltens angezeigt werden. Beim Auftreten von Krankheiten mit Schmerzen wird die schmerzende Stelle gekühlt, indem sie mit z.B. Matsch beworfen wird. Die in dieser Studie dargestellten Einflüsse auf das nächtliche Verhalten von Afrikanischen Elefanten wurden vorher noch nicht beschrieben oder systematisch untersucht. Sie stellen wichtige Erkenntnisse für die zukünftige Haltung und das Management von Elefanten dar, sowohl im Hinblick auf eine weitere Optimierung als auch in Bezug auf die Beurteilung ihres Wohlbefindens.
Die Chloroplastenbewegung ist eine der wichtigsten Anpassungen, die Pflanzen entwickelt haben, um eine effiziente Ausbeute an Lichtquanten für die Photosynthese zu gewährleisten. Auch wenn der genaue Mechanismus und die Signalwege, die diesen Prozess vermitteln, noch nicht vollständig verstanden sind, konnten einige an der Chloroplastenbewegung beteiligte Proteine (phot1, phot2, chup1, Aktin, Profilin) in den letzten Jahren identifiziert werden. Chup1, das an der äußeren Chloroplastenmembran verankerte Protein, wird als putativer Linker zwischen den Chloroplasten und dem Aktin-Zytoskelett gesehen. Durch die Interaktion mit Profilaktin reguliert chup1 die Aktin-Polymerisierung und somit auch die Chloroplastenbewegung. Die Analyse der intra- und intermolekularen Interaktionen von chup1, die in dieser Studie ermittelt wurden, deutet auf eine Homodimerisierung von chup1 durch die Coiled coil Domäne sowie auf eine Assoziation des N- mit dem C-terminalen Leuzin- Zipper hin. Neben diesen Interaktionen konnte für einen der vier putativen Interaktionspartner von chup1, der wall associated kinase 3, eine mögliche Funktion bei der Vermeidungsbewegung der Chloroplasten gezeigt werden. In Anbetracht dieser Interaktion und der postulierten Phosphorylierungsstellen in chup1, könnte eine Regulierung von chup1 durch Phosphorylierung erfolgen. Um die Funktionen von chup1 und phot2 besser zu verstehen, wurden die Pflanzen mit knock-out in diesen Gene genauer charakterisiert und die T-DNA Insertionslinien von chup1 und phot2 zeigen keine Reduzierung in der photosynthetischen Aktivität. Im Gegensatz dazu, bedingt der knock out von beiden Genen eine deutliche Verminderung der photosynthetischen Leistung. Infolge der fehlenden Chloroplastenbewegung im chup1phot2 Doppel knock out führt das möglicherweise zu einem verringerten Schutz der Photosynthese. Dies bestätigt weiter die Verbindung zwischen der durch phot2 induzierten Signalkaskade und der Aktin-Polymerisierung, die durch chup1 reguliert wird. Um den Einfluss von chup1, phot1 und phot2 auf die transkriptionelle Regulierung nach BL zu analysieren, wurde das globale Expressionsmuster nach BL-Behandlung untersucht. Bei der Analyse der Mutanten-Pflanzen mit einem Defekt in der Chloroplastenbewegung (chup1, phot1, phot2) konnte keine Beeinflussung der Regulierung der Genexpression in BL-gesteuerten Signalkaskaden durch diese Proteine beobachtet werden. Die Regulierung der Expression geschieht eher auf posttranskriptioneller Ebene und wird mit Hilfe von microRNA gesteuert.
Fas Ligand (FasL; CD95L; CD178; TNSF6) is a 40 kDa glycosylated type II transmembrane protein with 279 aa in mice and 281 aa in humans that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. The extracellular domain (ECD) harbors a TNF homology domain, the receptor binding site, a motif for self assembly and trimerization, and several putative N-glycosylation and a metalloprotease cleavage site/s. The cytoplasmic tail of FasL is the longest of all TNFL family members and contains several conserved signaling motifs, such as a putative tandem Casein kinase I phosphorylation site, a unique proline-rich domain (PRD) and phosphorylatable tyrosine residues (Y7 in mice; Y7, Y9, Y13 in human). The FasL/Fas system is renowned for the potent induction of apoptosis in the receptor-bearing cell and is especially important for immune system functions. It is involved in the killing of target cells by natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T cells, in the (self) elimination of effector cells following the proliferative phase of an immune response (activation-induced cell death; AICD), in the maintenance of immuneprivileged sites and in the induction and maintenance of peripheral tolerance. Owing to its potent pro-apoptotic signaling capacity and important functions, FasL expression and activity are tightly regulated at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels and restricted to few cell types, such as immune effector cells and cells of immune-privileged sites. In contrast, Fas is expressed in a variety of tissues including lymphoid tissues, liver, heart, kidney, pancreas, brain and ovary. In addition to its pro-apoptotic function, the FasL/Fas system can also elicit nonapoptotic signals in the receptor-expressing cell. Among others, Fas-signaling exerts co-stimulatory functions in the immune system, e.g. by promoting survival, activation and proliferation of T cells. Besides the capacity to deliver a signal into receptor-bearing cells (‘forward signal’), FasL can receive and transmit signals into the ligand-expressing cell. This phenomenon has been described for several TNF family ligands and is known as ‘reverse signaling’. The first evidence for the existence of reverse signaling into FasL-bearing cells stems from two studies that demonstrated either co-stimulation of murine CD8+ T cell lines by FasL cross-linking or inhibition of activation-induced proliferation of murine CD4+ T cells. In both cases, the observed changes of proliferative behaviour critically depended on the presence of a signaling-competent FasL. Almost certainly, the FasL ICD is functionally involved in signal-transmission: (i) The ICD is highly conserved across species and harbors several signaling motifs, most notably a unique PRD. (ii) Numerous proteins have been identified which interact with the FasL PRD via their SH3 or WW domains and regulate various aspects of FasL biology, such as FasL sorting, storage, cell surface expression and the linkage of FasL to intracellular signaling pathways. (iii) Post-translational modifications of the ICD have been implicated in the sorting of FasL to vesicles and the FasL-dependent activation of Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT). (iv) Proteolytic processing of FasL liberates the ICD and allows its translocation into the nucleus where it might influence gene transcription. (v) It could be shown that overexpression of the FasL ICD is sufficient to initiate reverse signaling upon concomitant T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation and ICD cross-linking. Conflicting data on the consequences of FasL reverse signaling exist, and costimulatory as well as inhibitory functions have been reported. These discrepancies probably reflect the use of artificial experimental systems. Neither the precise molecular mechanism underlying FasL reverse signaling, nor its physiological relevance have been addressed at the endogenous protein level in vivo. Therefore, a ‘knockout/knockin’ mouse model in which wildtype FasL was replaced with a deletion mutant lacking the intracellular portion (FasL Delta Intra) was established in the group of PD Dr. Martin Zörnig. In the present study, FasL Delta Intra mice were phenotypically characterized and were employed to investigate the physiological consequences of FasL reverse signaling at the molecular and cellular level. To ensure that FasL Delta Intra mice represent a suitable model to study the consequences of FasL reverse signaling, we demonstrated that activated lymphocytes from homozygous FasL Delta Intra or wildtype mice express comparable amounts of (truncated) FasL at the cell surface. The truncated protein retains the capacity to induce apoptosis in Fas receptor-positive target cells, as co-culture assays with FasL-expressing activated lymphocytes and Fas-sensitive target cells showed. Additionally, systematic screening of unchallenged mice did not reveal any phenotypic abnormalities. Notably, signs of a lymphoproliferative autoimmune disease associated with FasL-deficiency could not be detected. As several reports have implicated FasL reverse signaling in the regulation of T cell expansion and activation, proliferation of lymphocytes isolated from FasL Delta Intra and wildtype mice in response to antigen receptor stimulation was investigated. Using CFSE dilution assays it could be demonstrated that the proliferative response of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells and of B cells was enhanced in the absence of the FasL ICD. Interestingly, this effect was most pronounced in B cells and could only be detected in CD4+ T cells after depletion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. To our Summary knowledge, this is the first time that FasL reverse signaling has been demonstrated in B cells. In a series of experiments, the activation of several pathways that are known to play important roles in signal-transmission initiated upon antigen receptor triggering was assessed. As a molecular correlate for the observed enhancement of activation-induced proliferation, Extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation was significantly increased in FasL Delta Intra mice following antigen receptor crosslinking. Surprisingly, B cell stimulation lead to a comparable extent of activating phosphorylations on S38 in c-Raf and S218/S222 in MEK1/2 in cells isolated from wildtype and FasL Delta Intra mice, indicating that Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) upstream of ERK1/2 (Raf-1 and MEK1/2) apparently do not contribute to the differential regulation of ERK1/2. Experiments in which activation-induced Akt phosphorylation (S473) was quantified also did not suggest a participation of Phosphoinositol specific kinase 3 (PI3K)/Akt signals in this process. Instead, further characterization of the upstream pathway revealed an involvement of Phospholipase C gamma (PLC gamma) and Protein kinase C (PKC) signals in FasL-dependent ERK1/2- regulation. Previous studies in our group revealed a Notch-like processing of FasL, resulting in the transcriptional regulation of a reporter gene. Furthermore, an interaction of the FasL ICD with the transcription factor Lymphoid-enhancer binding factor-1 (Lef-1) that affected Lef-1-dependent reporter gene transcription could be demonstrated. Therefore, a molecular analysis of activated lymphocytes was performed to identify FasL reverse signaling target genes. The differential expression of promising candidates was verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), which showed that the transcription of genes associated with lymphocyte proliferation and activation was increased in FasL Delta Intra mice compared to wildtype mice. Interestingly, an extensive regulation of Lef-1-dependent Wnt/beta-Catenin signalingrelated genes was found. Lef-1 mRNA (RT-PCR) and protein (intracellular FACS staining) could be detected in mature B cells, suggesting the possibility of FasL ICD-mediated inhibition of Lef-1-dependent gene expression in these cells, initiated by Notch-like processing of FasL. To investigate the consequences of FasL reverse signaling in vivo, a potential participation of the FasL ICD in the regulation of immune responses upon various challenges was analyzed. In experiments in which thymocyte proliferation or the expansion of antigen-specific T cells following a challenge with the superantigen Staphylococcus enterotoxin B (SEB), with Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) or with Listeria monocytogenes were investigated, comparable results were obtained with wildtype and FasL Delta Intra mice. Likewise, the recruitment of neutrophils in a thioglycollate-induced model of peritonitis was not affected by deletion of the FasL ICD. These findings might reflect regulatory mechanisms operating in vivo, such as control exerted by regulatory T cells. Along these lines, proliferative differences in CD4+ T cells could only be detected ex vivo after depletion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Furthermore, several in vitro studies indicate that retrograde FasL signals can be observed under conditions of suboptimal lymphocyte stimulation, but not when the TCR is optimally stimulated. Therefore, the potent initiation of antigen receptor signaling by stimuli like SEB or LCMV might have masked inhibitory FasL reverse signaling in these experiments. In agreement with the observed hyperactivation of lymphocytes in the absence of the ICD ex vivo, the increase in germinal center B cells (GCs) following immunization with the hapten 3-hydroxy 4-nitrophenylacetyl (NP) and the number of antibody-secreting PCs was significantly higher in FasL Delta Intra mice. The larger quantity of PCs correlated with increased titers of NP-binding, i.e. antigen-specific, IgM and IgG1 antibodies in the serum of FasL Delta Intra mice after immunization. These data suggest that FasL reverse signaling exerts immunmodulatory functions. Supporting this notion, a model of Ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation revealed an involvement of retrograde FasL-signals in the recruitment of immune effector cells into the lung and in the activation of T cells following exposure of mice to Ovalbumin. Together, our ex vivo and in vivo findings based on endogenous FasL protein levels demonstrate that FasL ICD-mediated reverse signaling is a negative modulator of certain immune responses. It is tempting to speculate that FasL reverse signaling might be a fine-tuning mechanism to prevent autoimmune diseases, a theory which will be tested in adequate mouse models in the future.
The TATA Box Binding Protein (TBP) is a 20 kD protein that is essential and universally conserved in eucarya and archaea. Especially among archaea, organisms can be found that live below 0°C as well as organisms that grow above 100°C. The archaeal TBPs show a high sequence identity and a similar structure consisting of α-helices and β-sheets that are arranged in a saddle-shape 2-symmetric fold. In previous studies, we have characterized the thermal stability of thermophilic and mesophilic archaeal TBPs by infrared spectroscopy and showed the correlation between the transition temperature (Tm) and the optimal growth temperature (OGT) of the respective donor organism. In this study, a “new” mutant TBP has been constructed, produced, purified and analyzed for a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of thermoadaptation. The β-sheet part of the mutant consists of the TBP from Methanothermobacter thermoautotrophicus (OGT 65°C, MtTBP65) whose α-helices have been exchanged by those of Methanosarcina mazei (OGT 37°C, MmTBP37). The Hybrid-TBP irreversibly aggregates after thermal unfolding just like MmTBP37 and MtTBP65, but the Tm lies between that of MmTBP37 and MtTBP65 indicating that the interaction between the α-helical and β-sheet part of the TBP is crucial for the thermal stability. The temperature stability is probably encoded in the variable α-helices that interact with the highly conserved and DNA binding β-sheets.
The Opisthobranchia comprise highly specialized marine gastropods and have therefore been subject to diverse investigations covering various biological disciplines. However, a robust phylogeny of these gastropods is still lacking and several subclades have only been rarely studied. Furthermore, crucial aspects for the evolution of Opisthobranchia have not been comparatively analysed. Therefore, the aim of the present thesis is to gain new insights into the phylogeny of the Opisthobranchia with special focus on certain critical groups (Pleurobranchomorpha, Acteonoidea) and to assess several crucial features of the evolution of the investigated clades. The combination of four different gene markers (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, 16S rDNA and CO1) and modern molecular systematic analysis tools were used to construct phylogenetic hypotheses focussing on Opisthobranchia as a whole as well as Pleurobranchomorpha and Acteonoidea in more detail. Intriguing new aspects of phylogeny and evolution of Opisthobranchia were revealed. First of all, monophyly of Opisthobranchia is definitely rejected based on the present data, while monophyly of Euthyneura (comprising Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata) is supported. Monophyly of opisthobranch subclades is confirmed for Nudipleura (as well as its constituting groups Nudibranchia and Pleurobranchomorpha), Umbraculida, Pteropoda (as well as subclades Thecosomata and Gymnosomata) and Acochlidiacea, for Cephalaspidea (if Runcinacea is regarded as a separate clade) and for Sacoglossa (if Cylindrobulla is accepted as an Oxynoacea). Aplysiomorpha are rendered paraphyletic due to the position of Akera bullata, but this result needs further investigation and should be considered with caution. The Nudipleura are found as the first single offshoot of the Euthyneura implying an early evolutionary separation of the last common ancestor of this clade. The remaining taxa form two main clades, one comprising the opisthobranch subgroups Umbraculida, Cephalaspidea, Aplysiomorpha and Pteropoda, while the other contains the pulmonate taxa and the opisthobranch Sacoglossa and Acochlidiacea. The interrelationships within these clades remain largely unresolved due to low statistical support values. However, a possible sister group relationship of Acochlidiacea and Eupulmonata receives statistical support. Opisthobranchia display various highly specific adaptations to diverse food sources. However, evolution of these specialized traits has never been assessed at an analytical level. The current thesis reconstructs the evolution of dietary preferences with novel methodologies based on the newly proposed phylogenetic hypothesis. Reconstruction of dietary evolution revealed herbivory as the ancestral condition in Euthyneura implying that carnivory evolved at least five times independently in the diverse lineages. The first comprehensive molecular phylogenetic hypothesis of the Pleurobranchomorpha could not reveal monophyly of the two main subclades Pleurobranchaeidae and Pleurobranchidae. This is due to the position of a single taxon (Euselenops luniceps) which is assigned to the Pleurobranchaeidae based on morphology but clusters within Pleurobranchidae in the current hypothesis. Furthermore, the tribe Berthellini and the genus Berthella are rendered paraphyletic by the current analyses. The results of molecular systematic analyses were used to reconstruct historical biogeography of Pleurobranchomorpha. Four different methodological approaches were applied yielding ambiguous results for Pleurobranchomorpha. However, the Pleurobranchidae comprising about 80% of the extant Pleurobranchomorpha most probably derived from an Antarctic origin. Dating of the phylogenetic tree via molecular clock methods yielded divergence of Pleurobranchidae into the Antarctic Tomthompsonia antarctica and the remaining species in Early Oligocene. Afterwards the latter underwent rapid radiation during Oligocene and Early Miocene. This divergence event coincides with two major geological events in the Antarctic region. On the one hand, the onset of glaciation and on the other hand the opening of the Drake Passage with concurrent formation of an Antarctic circumpolar current (ACC). I suppose that these sudden and dramatic changes in climate and palaeogeography probably accounted for migration of the last common ancestor of Pleurobranchidae (besides Tomthompsonia) into warmer regions via the Drake Passage to the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific and via the South Tasman Rise to the Indo-West Pacific. Furthermore, the ACC may have triggered larval dispersal to the Eastern Atlantic. The phylogenetic position of Acteonoidea has been a matter of debate for decades and they have long been considered as basal opisthobranchs. Results of the present thesis rather support placement in “Lower Heterobranchia” as sister group of Rissoelloidea. The current division of Acteonoidea into three families has never been investigated by means of phylogenetic methods. Thus, this thesis provides the first comprehensive investigation of this clade challenging present division into three families. The results rather support division into two main clades with the monogeneric Bullinidae clustering within Aplustridae doubting its separate status. Additionally, Rictaxis punctocaelatus which has been assigned to Acteonidae clusters basal to Aplustridae rendering Acteonidae paraphyletic. Since information on morphology of R. punctocaelatus was lacking until now, I conducted the first detailed investigation on morphology and histology of this species in order to reassess the unexpected molecular systematic placement. Character tracing analyses revealed similarities with both acteonoidean families implying an intermediate position of this species which might be assigned to a separate family in the future. Furthermore, the common features of Acteonidae and Rictaxis (massive shell, small foot, anterior mantle cavity opening, and absence of oral gland) are possibly plesiomorphic for the whole Acteonoidea. In summary, the results of the present thesis provide valuable novel insights into the phylogeny and evolution of the Opisthobranchia by employing state-of-the-art approaches of molecular systematics and evolutionary reconstruction. Thus, diverse hypotheses on opisthobranch phylogeny and evolution were either supported or rejected as well as novel hypotheses proposed which offer the basis for further research on these extraordinary gastropods.
The magnetic field sensors enabling birds to extract orientational information from the Earth’s magnetic field have remained enigmatic. Our previously published results from homing pigeons have made us suggest that the iron containing sensory dendrites in the inner dermal lining of the upper beak are a candidate structure for such an avian magnetometer system. Here we show that similar structures occur in two species of migratory birds (garden warbler, Sylvia borin and European robin, Erithacus rubecula) and a non-migratory bird, the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus). In all these bird species, histological data have revealed dendrites of similar shape and size, all containing iron minerals within distinct subcellular compartments of nervous terminals of the median branch of the Nervus ophthalmicus. We also used microscopic X-ray absorption spectroscopy analyses to identify the involved iron minerals to be almost completely Fe III-oxides. Magnetite (Fe II/III) may also occur in these structures, but not as a major Fe constituent. Our data suggest that this complex dendritic system in the beak is a common feature of birds, and that it may form an essential sensory basis for the evolution of at least certain types of magnetic field guided behavior.
With the help of miniaturized GPS recorders I recorded 167 tracks of 48 individual pigeons during their flight from 6 different sites around Frankfurt. The experiments consisted of two main series of repeated releases from two sites 30 km north and south from the pigeons' home loft. From the site in the south the pigeons homed 12 times and from the site in the north 16 times. After the final release from these sites, the pigeons were released at 60 km distance from home. These additional sites were selected so that the pigeons would presumably fly over the previous release site with which they were highly familiar. After conclusion of the main series two additional releases were performed, one within the magnetic anomaly of the Vogelsberg and one in a magnetically quiet region. To make these releases comparable, both release sites were selected so that the distance from the home loft was 40 km. All data obtained during these experiments were subjected to a threefold analysis, mostly based on methods that I had developed by myself or adapted for this specific study. In the first step, data were analyzed traditionally, evaluating variables similar to those that can be found in current literature. I therefore calculated values that correspond to those obtained by visual observation, like virtual vanishing bearings and intervals after one minute and after 2.5 km. Additionally I calculated the efficiency of the flights and efficiencies for specific portions of each flight, to derive variables that describe the behavior after vanishing. In the second step, which served also as a preparation for the mathematical analysis, the flight of the pigeons was separated into distinctive phases of the flight by the so-called points of decision. The flight of the pigeon can usually be separated into an initial phase of flying about, a departure and/or final homing phase. In more complex cases, however, several points of decision and a multitude of intermediary phases can be defined. Yet, the initial phase, the departure phase and the final homing phase can be defined for all tracks and therefore have been selected as appropriate candidates for a thorough analysis. In the last step I employed the so-called method of time lag embedding to reconstruct the underlying navigational process of the pigeons' homing flight. This method is based on the principles of chaos theory and is regularly employed for the analysis of dynamic systems. Its application allows the reconstruction of the underlying processes from experimentally recorded data without any a priori knowledge of the underlying system itself. For these reconstructed systems I calculated characteristic properties which are unique for each system. These are the so-called correlation dimension, describing the complexity of the system, and the so-called largest Lyapunov exponent, describing its predictability. Based on the knowledge gathered from these reconstructions, I used a variation of the previous methods to identify navigational phases, by calculating the correlation dimension as a sliding mean over the complete track. From these data I then derived further characteristics of the underlying process, such as its precision and differences in complexity depending on the pigeon's current position. ...
Fucoxanthin chlorophyll proteins (Fcps), the light-harvesting antennas of heterokont algae, are encoded by a multigene family and are highly similar with respect to their molecular masses as well as to their pigmentation, making it difficult to purify single Fcps. In this study, a hexa-histidine tag was genetically added to the C-terminus of the FcpA protein of the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. A transgenic strain expressing the recombinant His-tagged FcpA protein in addition to the endogenous wild type Fcps was created. This strategy allowed, for the first time, the purification of a specific, stable trimeric Fcp complex. In addition, a pool of various trimeric Fcps was also purified from the wild-type cells using sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation and gel filtration. In both the His-tagged and the wild-type Fcps, excitation energy coupling between fucoxanthin and chlorophyll a was intact and the existence of a chlorophyll a/fucoxanthin excitonic dimer was demonstrated using circular dichroism spectroscopy. Mass spectrometric analyses of the trimeric His-tagged complex indicated that it is composed of FcpA and FcpE polypeptides. It is confirmed here that a trimer is the basic organizational unit of Fcps in P. tricornutum. From circular dichroism spectra, it is proposed that the organization of the pigments on the polypeptide backbone of Fcps is a conserved feature in the case of chlorophyll a/c containing algae.
Proteins of the Omp85 family are conserved in all kingdoms of life. They mediate protein transport across or protein insertion into membranes and reside in the outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Omp85 proteins contain a C-terminal transmembrane β-barrel and a soluble N terminus with a varying number of polypeptide-transport-associated or POTRA domains. Here we investigate Omp85 from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. The crystallographic three-dimensional structure of the N-terminal region shows three POTRA domains, here named P1 to P3 from the N terminus. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed a hinge between P1 and P2 but in contrast show that P2 and P3 are fixed in orientation. The P2-P3 arrangement is identical as seen for the POTRA domains from proteobacterial FhaC, suggesting this orientation is a conserved feature. Furthermore, we define interfaces for protein-protein interaction in P1 and P2. P3 possesses an extended loop unique to cyanobacteria and plantae, which influences pore properties as shown by deletion. It now becomes clear how variations in structure of individual POTRA domains, as well as the different number of POTRA domains with both rigid and flexible connections make the N termini of Omp85 proteins versatile adaptors for a plentitude of functions.
Filamentous fungi are of great importance in ecology, agriculture, medicine, and biotechnology. Thus, it is not surprising that genomes for more than 100 filamentous fungi have been sequenced, most of them by Sanger sequencing. While next-generation sequencing techniques have revolutionized genome resequencing, e.g. for strain comparisons, genetic mapping, or transcriptome and ChIP analyses, de novo assembly of eukaryotic genomes still presents significant hurdles, because of their large size and stretches of repetitive sequences. Filamentous fungi contain few repetitive regions in their 30–90 Mb genomes and thus are suitable candidates to test de novo genome assembly from short sequence reads. Here, we present a high-quality draft sequence of the Sordaria macrospora genome that was obtained by a combination of Illumina/Solexa and Roche/454 sequencing. Paired-end Solexa sequencing of genomic DNA to 85-fold coverage and an additional 10-fold coverage by single-end 454 sequencing resulted in ~4 Gb of DNA sequence. Reads were assembled to a 40 Mb draft version (N50 of 117 kb) with the Velvet assembler. Comparative analysis with Neurospora genomes increased the N50 to 498 kb. The S. macrospora genome contains even fewer repeat regions than its closest sequenced relative, Neurospora crassa. Comparison with genomes of other fungi showed that S. macrospora, a model organism for morphogenesis and meiosis, harbors duplications of several genes involved in self/nonself-recognition. Furthermore, S. macrospora contains more polyketide biosynthesis genes than N. crassa. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that some of these genes may have been acquired by horizontal gene transfer from a distantly related ascomycete group. Our study shows that, for typical filamentous fungi, de novo assembly of genomes from short sequence reads alone is feasible, that a mixture of Solexa and 454 sequencing substantially improves the assembly, and that the resulting data can be used for comparative studies to address basic questions of fungal biology.
Development of a computational method for reaction-driven de novo design of druglike compounds
(2010)
A new method for computer-based de novo design of drug candidate structures is proposed. DOGS (Design of Genuine Structures) features a ligand-based strategy to suggest new molecular structures. The quality of designed compounds is assessed by a graph kernel method measuring the distance of designed molecules to a known reference ligand. Two graph representations of molecules (molecular graph and reduced graph) are implemented to feature different levels of abstraction from the molecular structure. A fully deterministic construction procedure explicitly designed to facilitate synthesizability of proposed structures is realized: DOGS uses readily available synthesis building blocks and established reaction schemes to assemble new molecules. This approach enables the software to propose not only the final compounds, but also to give suggestions for synthesis routes to generate them at the bench. The set of synthesis schemes comprises about 83 chemical reactions. Special focus was put on ring closure reactions forming drug-like substructures. The library of building blocks consists of about 25,000 readily available synthesis building blocks. DOGS builds up new structures in a stepwise process. Each virtual synthesis step adds a fragment to the growing molecule until a stop criterion (upper threshold for molecular mass or number of synthesis steps) is fulfilled. In a theoretical evaluation, a set of ~1,800 molecules proposed by DOGS is analyzed for critical properties of de novo designed compounds. The software is able to suggest drug-like molecules (79% violate less than two of Lipinski’s ‘rule of five’). In addition, a trained classifier for drug-likeness assigns a score >0.8 to 51% of the designed molecules (with 1.0 being the top score). In addition, most of the DOGS molecules are deemed to be synthesizable by a retro-synthesis descriptor (77% of molecules score in the top 10% of the decriptor’s value range). Calculated logP(o/w) values of constructed molecules resemble a unimodal distribution centred close to the mean of logP(o/w) values calculated for the reference compounds. A structural analysis of selected designs reveals that DOGS is capable of constructing molecules reflecting the overall topological arrangement of pharmacophoric features found in the reference ligands. At the same time, the DOGS designs represent innovative compounds being structurally distinct from the references. Synthesis routes for these examples are short and seem feasible in most cases. Some reaction steps might need modification by using protecting groups to avoid unwanted side reactions. Plausible bioisosters for known privileged fragments addressing the S1 pocket of trypsin were proposed by DOGS in a case study. Three of them can be found in known trypsin inhibitors as S1-adressing side chains. The software was also tested in two prospective case studies to design bioactive compounds. DOGS was applied to design ligands for human gamma-secretase and human histamine receptor subtype 4 (hH4R). Two selected designs for gamma-secretase were readily synthesizable as suggested by the software in one-step reactions. Both compounds represent inverse modulators of the target molecule. In a second case study, a ligand candidate selected for hH4R was synthesized exactly following the three-step synthesis plan suggested by DOGS. This compound showed low activity on the target structure. The concept of DOGS is able to deliver synthesizable and bioactive compounds. Suggested synthesis plans of selected compounds were readily pursuable. DOGS can therefore serve as a valuable idea generator for the design of new pharmacological active compounds.