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Our earth, which is a tiny in the infinity of the universe, is getting to be a difficult place to live in. Environmental problems such as pollution and global warming on one side and various disagreements and wars in every corner of the world on the other side, make most of the people unhappy and cause suffering. Everybody living in this world regardless of his or her ethnicity or religion has got share of responsibility to make this earth a place to live in peace and tranquillity. Within this framework, the most important thing in the world is that people with different languages and religious denominations should understand each other better to achieve the goal of creating more secure and peaceful environment for humanity. To make a contribution to this endeavour the Qur’anic guidelines which appear to open a sound way and strengthen the ground of a dialogue between celestial religions should be elucidated.
Contrastive focus
(2007)
The article puts forward a discourse-pragmatic approach to the notoriously evasive phenomena of contrastivity and emphasis. It is argued that occurrences of focus that are treated in terms of "contrastive focus", "kontrast" (Vallduví & Vilkuna 1998) or "identificational focus" (É. Kiss 1998) in the literature should not be analyzed in familiar semantic terms like introduction of alternatives or exhaustivity. Rather, an adequate analysis must take into account discourse-pragmatic notions like hearer expectation or discourse expectability of the focused content in a given discourse situation. The less expected a given content is judged to be for the hearer, relative to the Common Ground, the more likely a speaker is to mark this content by means of special grammatical devices, giving rise to emphasis.
The impact of naval sonar on beaked whales is of increasing concern. In recent years the presence of gas and fat embolism consistent with decompression sickness (DCS) has been reported through postmortem analyses on beaked whales that stranded in connection with naval sonar exercises. In the present study, we use basic principles of diving physiology to model nitrogen tension and bubble growth in several tissue compartments during normal div ng behavior and for several hypothetical dive profiles to assess the risk of DCS. Assuming that normal diving does not cause nitrogen tensions in excess of those shown to be safe for odontocetes, the modeling indicates that repetitive shallow dives, perhaps as a consequence of an extended avoidance reaction to sonar sound, can indeed pose a risk for DCS and that this risk should increase with the duration of the response. If the model is correct, then limiting the duration of sonar exposure to minimize the duration of any avoidance reaction therefore has the potential to reduce the risk of DCS.
Thioredoxin 1 and thioredoxin 2 have opposed regulatory functions on hypoxia-inducible factor-1α
(2007)
Hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), a key regulator for adaptation to hypoxia, is composed of HIF-1alpha and HIF-1beta. In this study, we present evidence that overexpression of mitochondria-located thioredoxin 2 (Trx2) attenuated hypoxia-evoked HIF-1alpha accumulation, whereas cytosolic thioredoxin 1 (Trx1) enhanced HIF-1alpha protein amount. Transactivation of HIF-1 is decreased by overexpression of Trx2 but stimulated by Trx1. Inhibition of proteasomal degradation of HIF-1alpha in Trx2-overexpressing cells did not fully restore HIF-1alpha protein levels, while HIF-1alpha accumulation was enhanced in Trx1-overexpressing cells. Reporter assays showed that cap-dependent translation is increased by Trx1 and decreased by Trx2, whereas HIF-1alpha mRNA levels remained unaltered. These data suggest that thioredoxins affect the synthesis of HIF-1alpha. Trx1 facilitated synthesis of HIF-1alpha by activating Akt, p70S6K, and eIF-4E, known to control cap-dependent translation. In contrast, Trx2 attenuated activities of Akt, p70S6K, and eIF-4E and provoked an increase in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. MitoQ, a mitochondria specific antioxidant, reversed HIF-1alpha accumulation as well as Akt activation under hypoxia in Trx2 cells, supporting the notion of translation control mechanisms in affecting HIF-1alpha protein accumulation.
Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGluR7) belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors. mGluR7 is widely distributed in the brain and primarily localized at presynaptic terminals, where it is thought to regulate neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Studies have shown that the intracellular C-terminal tail of mGluR7 binds a variety of proteins in addition to trimeric G-proteins. These newly identified protein interactions are believed to play a key role in the synaptic targeting and G-protein dependent signaling of mGluR7. Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1), a PDZ-domain protein, is a strong interaction partner of mGluR7a. In order to investigate the role of PICK1 in the synaptic trafficking and signaling of mGluR7a, a knock-in mouse line in which the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 is disrupted was generated. Analysis of the mutant mice by immunocytochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a was not altered, indicating that PICK1 is not required for mGluR7a receptor membrane trafficking and synaptic localization. However, when the spontaneous synaptic activity of cerebellar granule cell cultures prepared from both wild-type and knock-in mice was monitored, and L-AP4 (400μm) was found to decrease the frequency, but not the amplitude, of spontaneous excitatory currents in wild-type neurons, while no effect of L-AP4 on spontaneous synaptic activity was observed in knock-in neurons. This indicates that PICK1 binding to the C-terminal region of mGluR7a plays an essential role in mGluR7a mediated G-protein signaling. We examined the threshold sensitivity for the convulsant pentetrazole (PTZ) in knock-in mice. It was found that mGluR7a knock-in mice had a greater sensitivity to PTZ than wild-type mice. Moreover, the surface parietal cortex EEG recordings of the mutant mice revealed spontaneous synchronous oscillation, or "spike-and-wave discharges" (SWD), which displayed similar characteristics to absence-like seizures. It was also observed that the knock-in mice responded to pharmacology as human absence epilepsy. These data suggests that the knock-in mice displayed the phenotype of absencelike epilepsy. Furthermore, the behavioral analysis of the mGluR7a knock-in mice showed no deficits in motor coordination, pain sensation, anxiety as well as spatial learning and memory, thus the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 appears not to contribute to these physiological processes. Taken together, our data provides evidence for an important role of PICK1 in Gprotein dependent signaling of mGluR7a, whereas PICK1 is not required for synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a. Our results also provide an animal model of absencelike epilepsy generated by disruption of a single mGluR7a-PDZ interaction, thus creating a novel therapeutic target against this neurological disease.
The geometric parameters of the title compound, C8H6N2O·C6H3N3O7, are in the usual ranges. The three nitro groups are almost coplanar with the aromatic picrate ring [dihedral angles 10.2 (2)°, 7.62 (16) and 8.08 (17)°]. The molecular conformation of the picric acid is stabilized by an intramolecular O-H...O hydrogen bond. The phthalazin-1(2H)-one molecules are connected via N-H...O hydrogen bonds, forming centrosymmetric dimers. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.034; wR factor = 0.091; data-to-parameter ratio = 11.1.
Sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) is a bioactive lipid that binds to G protein-coupled-receptors and activates various signaling cascades. Here, we show that in renal mesangial cells, SPC not only activates various protein kinase cascades but also activates Smad proteins, which are classical members of the transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signaling pathway. Consequently, SPC is able to mimic TGFβ-mediated cell responses, such as an anti-inflammatory and a profibrotic response. Interleukin-1β-stimulated prostaglandin E2 formation is dose-dependently suppressed by SPC, which is paralleled by reduced secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) protein expression and activity. This effect is due to a reduction of sPLA2 mRNA expression caused by inhibited sPLA2 promoter activity. Furthermore, SPC upregulates the profibrotic connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) protein and mRNA expression. Blocking TGFβ signaling by a TGFβ receptor kinase inhibitor causes an inhibition of SPC-stimulated Smad activation and reverses both the negative effect of SPC on sPLA2 expression and the positive effect on CTGF expression. In summary, our data show that SPC, by mimicking TGFβ, leads to a suppression of proinflammatory mediator production and stimulates a profibrotic cell response that is often the end point of an anti-inflammatory reaction. Thus, targeting SPC receptors may represent a novel therapeutic strategy to cope with inflammatory diseases.
GERMAN BANKS ARE HIGHLY SATISFIED WITH THEIR BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING (BPO) VENTURES. BENEFITS ARE ACHIEVED THROUGH THE COMBINATION OF A CLOSE VENDOR RELATIONSHIP AND A WELL-DEFINED OUTSOURCING CONTRACT. THE OUTSOURCING OF DOMESTIC PAYMENT PROCESSES IS MOST SUCCESSFUL WHEREAS THE OUTSOURCING OF CONSUMER CREDIT PROCESSES STRUGGLES WITH QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS.
Background Today it is widely accepted that plastids are of cyanobacterial origin. During their evolutionary integration into the metabolic and regulatory networks of the host cell the engulfed cyanobacteria lost their independency. This process was paralleled by a massive gene transfer from symbiont to the host nucleus challenging the development of a retrograde protein translocation system to ensure plastid functionality. Such a system includes specific targeting signals of the proteins needed for the function of the plastid and membrane-bound machineries performing the transfer of these proteins across the envelope membranes. At present, most informations on protein translocation are obtained by the analysis of land plants. However, the analysis of protein import into the primitive plastids of glaucocystophyte algae, revealed distinct features placing this system as a tool to understand the evolutionary development of translocation systems. Here, bacterial outer membrane proteins of the Omp85 family have recently been discussed as evolutionary seeds for the development of translocation systems. Results To further explore the initial mode of protein translocation, the observed phenylalanine dependence for protein translocation into glaucophyte plastids was pursued in detail. We document that indeed the phenylalanine has an impact on both, lipid binding and binding to proteoliposomes hosting an Omp85 homologue. Comparison to established import experiments, however, unveiled a major importance of the phenylalanine for recognition by Omp85. This finding is placed into the context of the evolutionary development of the plastid translocon. Conclusion The phenylalanine in the N-terminal domain signs as a prerequisite for protein translocation across the outer membrane assisted by a primitive translocon. This amino acid appears to be optimized for specifically targeting the Omp85 protein without enforcing aggregation on the membrane surface. The phenylalanine has subsequently been lost in the transit sequence, but can be found at the C-terminal position of the translocating pore. Thereby, the current hypothesis of Omp85 being the prokaryotic contribution to the ancestral Toc translocon can be supported.
Background Synchronous neuronal firing has been discussed as a potential neuronal code. For testing first, if synchronous firing exists, second if it is modulated by the behaviour, and third if it is not by chance, a large set of tools has been developed. However, to test whether synchronous neuronal firing is really involved in information processing one needs a direct comparison of the amount of synchronous firing for different factors like experimental or behavioural conditions. To this end we present an extended version of a previously published method NeuroXidence [1], which tests, based on a bi- and multivariate test design, whether the amount of synchronous firing above the chance level is different for different factors.
This is the fourth in a series of publications on Zambian languages and grammar. The intention of the series is to boost the meagre scholarship and availability of educational materials on Zambian languages, which became particularly urgent in 1996, following the decision of the Zambian government to revert to the policy of using local languages as media of instruction. Kaonde (or more correctly Kikaonde) is spoken in the part of the North-Western Province of Zambia to the east of the Kabompo River, in adjacent parts of Mumbwa and Kaoma Districts to the south, and in the Katanga Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo to the North.
Both practitioners and academics agree about the importance of price and its direct influenceon consumers’ purchase decision as well as the company profit. In the reality, we rarely see a
single price for a given product. One visit in a store already shows that consumers face many various prices. This strategy of differential prices allows to increase profit but also improves consumers’ situation and increases welfare. A wide range of various price differentiation mechanisms exists on the market which makes price differentiation a very interesting phenomenon. Additionally, market developments constantly allow for new price differentiation applications. In this work, I research a fascinating topic of price differentiation, its various forms
and new application possibilities in changing market areas.
Clear native electrophoresis and blue native electrophoresis are microscale techniques for the isolation of membrane protein complexes. The Coomassie Blue G-250 dye, used in blue native electrophoresis, interferes with in-gel fluorescence detection and in-gel catalytic activity assays. This problem can be overcome by omitting the dye in clear native electrophoresis. However, clear native electrophoresis suffers from enhanced protein aggregation and broadening of protein bands during electrophoresis and therefore has been used rarely. To preserve the advantages of both electrophoresis techniques we substituted Coomassie dye in the cathode buffer of blue native electrophoresis by non-colored mixtures of anionic and neutral detergents. Like Coomassie dye, these mixed micelles imposed a charge shift on the membrane proteins to enhance their anodic migration and improved membrane protein solubility during electrophoresis. This improved clear native electrophoresis offers a high resolution of membrane protein complexes comparable to that of blue native electrophoresis. We demonstrate the superiority of high resolution clear native electrophoresis for in-gel catalytic activity assays of mitochondrial complexes I–V. We present the first in-gel histochemical staining protocol for respiratory complex III. Moreover we demonstrate the special advantages of high resolution clear native electrophoresis for in-gel detection of fluorescent labeled proteins labeled by reactive fluorescent dyes and tagged by fluorescent proteins. The advantages of high resolution clear native electrophoresis make this technique superior for functional proteomics analyses.
Background The Radical Pair model proposes that magnetoreception is a light-dependent process. Under low monochromatic light from the short-wavelength part of the visual spectrum, migratory birds show orientation in their migratory direction. Under monochromatic light of higher intensity, however, they showed unusual preferences in other directions or axial preferences. To determine whether or not these responses are still controlled by the respective light regimes, European robins, Erithacus rubecula, were tested under UV, Blue, Turquoise and Green light at increasing intensities, with orientation in migratory direction serving as a criterion whether or not magnetoreception works in the normal way. Results Under low light with a quantal flux of 8 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2, the birds were well oriented in their seasonally appropriate migratory direction under 424 nm Blue, 502 nm Turquoise and 565 nm Green light, indicating unimpaired magnetoreception. Under 373 nm UV of the same quantal flux, they were not oriented in migratory direction, showing a preference of the east-west axis instead, but they showed excellent orientation in migratory direction under UV of lower intensity. Intensities of above 36 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 of Blue, Turquoise and Green light elicited a variety of responses: disorientation, headings along the east-west axis, headings along the north-south axis or 'fixed' direction tendencies. These responses changed as the intensity was increased from 36 times 10 to the 15 power quanta s-1 m-2 to 54 and 72 times 10 to 15 power quanta s-1 m-2. Conclusion The specific manifestation of responses in directions other than migratory direction clearly depends on the ambient light regime. This implies that although mechanisms normally providing magnetic compass information seem disrupted, processes that are activated by light still control the behavior. It suggests complex interactions between different types of receptors, magnetic and visual. The nature of the receptors involved and details of their connections are not yet known; however, a role of the color cones in the processes mediating magnetic input is suggested.
Since about the year 2000 a hitherto unidentified species of the genus Leiobunum C. L. Koch, 1839, has rapidly invaded central and western Europe. Records are known from The Netherlands (probably the country of first occurrence in Europe), Germany, Austria and Switzerland. This introduced species, until now, mainly inhabits walls of buildings and rocky environments. Adults characteristically aggregate during daytime into groups of up to 1.000 individuals. The species is described and details on its present distribution, habitat preference, phenology and behaviour are presented.
Humans possess a number concept that differs from its predecessors in animal cognition in two crucial respects: (1) it is based on a numerical sequence whose elements are not confined to quantitative contexts, but can indicate cardinal/quantitative as well as ordinal and even nominal properties of empirical objects (e.g. ‘five buses’: cardinal; ‘the fifth bus’: ordinal; ‘the #5 bus’: nominal), and (2) it can involve recursion and, via recursion, discrete infinity. In contrast to that, the predecessors of numerical cognition that we find in animals and human infants rely on finite and iconic representations that are limited to cardinality and do not support a unified concept of number. In this paper, I argue that the way such a unified number concept could evolve in humans is via verbal sequences that are employed as numerical tools, that is, sequences of words whose elements are associated with empirical objects in number assignments. In particular, I show that a certain kind of number words, namely the counting sequences of natural languages, can be characterised as a central instance of verbal numerical tools. I describe a possible scenario for the emergence of such verbal numerical tools in human history that starts from iconic roots and that suggests that in a process of co-evolution, the gradual emergence of counting sequences and the development of an increasingly comprehensive number concept supported each other. On this account, it is language that opened the way for numerical cognition, suggesting that it is no accident that the same species that possesses the language faculty as a unique trait, should also be the one that developed a systematic concept of number.
The catalytic mechanism, electron transfer coupled to proton pumping, of heme-copper oxidases is not yet fully understood. Microsecond freeze-hyperquenching single turnover experiments were carried out with fully reduced cytochrome aa(3) reacting with O(2) between 83 micros and 6 ms. Trapped intermediates were analyzed by low temperature UV-visible, X-band, and Q-band EPR spectroscopy, enabling determination of the oxidation-reduction kinetics of Cu(A), heme a, heme a(3), and of a recently detected tryptophan radical (Wiertz, F. G. M., Richter, O. M. H., Cherepanov, A. V., MacMillan, F., Ludwig, B., and de Vries, S. (2004) FEBS Lett. 575, 127-130). Cu(B) and heme a(3) were EPR silent during all stages of the reaction. Cu(A) and heme a are in electronic equilibrium acting as a redox pair. The reduction potential of Cu(A) is 4.5 mV lower than that of heme a. Both redox groups are oxidized in two phases with apparent half-lives of 57 micros and 1.2 ms together donating a single electron to the binuclear center in each phase. The formation of the heme a(3) oxoferryl species P(R) (maxima at 430 nm and 606 nm) was completed in approximately 130 micros, similar to the first oxidation phase of Cu(A) and heme a. The intermediate F (absorbance maximum at 571 nm) is formed from P(R) and decays to a hitherto undetected intermediate named F(W)(*). F(W)(*) harbors a tryptophan radical, identified by Q-band EPR spectroscopy as the tryptophan neutral radical of the strictly conserved Trp-272 (Trp-272(*)). The Trp-272(*) populates to 4-5% due to its relatively low rate of formation (t((1/2)) = 1.2 ms) and rapid rate of breakdown (t((1/2)) = 60 micros), which represents electron transfer from Cu(A)/heme a to Trp-272(*). The formation of the Trp-272(*) constitutes the major rate-determining step of the catalytic cycle. Our findings show that Trp-272 is a redox-active residue and is in this respect on an equal par to the metallocenters of the cytochrome c oxidase. Trp-272 is the direct reductant either to the heme a(3) oxoferryl species or to Cu (2+)(B). The potential role of Trp-272 in proton pumping is discussed.
Das genetische Material der Zellen besteht aus Molekülketten der Desoxyribonukleinsäure (DNA), die ein Träger der Erbinformation ist. In normalen Körperzellen wird die Erbinformation der DNA in eine andere Molekülkette, die sogenannte Ribonukleinsäure (RNA), übersetzt. Die RNA reguliert die Bildung von neuem Protein in der Zelle. Dass die RNA nicht bloß ein „Stempel“ ist, der die Informationen der DNA weitervermittelt, darin sind sich die Experten heute einig. RNA-Moleküle können Informationen speichern, katalytische Aktivitäten entfalten, sich perfekt tarnen, und sie regulieren auch als Produkt ihre eigene Synthese. Manche Viren enthalten ebenfalls RNA (oder DNA) und können so den Produktionsapparat der Zelle täuschen. Erkenntnisse über die Wechselwirkung dieser RNA mit natürlichen und synthetischen Liganden können zur Suche nach potentiellen Wirkstoffen beitragen. Nukleinsäuren sind lineare Biopolymere von grundlegenden Untereinheiten, die Nukleotide genannt werden und aus Adenin (A), Cytosin (C), Guanin (G), Urazil (U), und Thymin (T) zusammengesetzt sind. Sie sind jedoch in der Lage sich zu falten und so eine Doppel-Helixstruktur auszubilden. Diese besteht größtenteils aus den bekannten "Watson-Crick-Basenpaaren" (G-C und A-U oder A-T), die zur Stabilität der Struktur beitragen, sowie aus den weniger stabilen G-U-Paaren. Durch die Wechselwirkung zwischen verschiedenen Sekundärstrukturelementen entstehen Tertiärstrukturelemente, deren Struktur und Dynamik oft nur schwer experimentell zu bestimmen sind. Fortschritte in der RNA-Strukturanalyse wurden durch Röntgenkristallographie und Kernresonanzspektroskopie (NMR) möglich. Durch die Röntgenkristallographie wurden viele RNA-Eigenschaften festgestellt. Allerdings besteht keine Kristallstruktur für alle mögliche Einzelnfaser-RNA-Haarnadeln, weil diese immer dazu neigen, in eine linearen doppelte Faserform zu kristallisieren, die geringe biologische Bedeutung hat. Außerdem wurde mit Hilfe der NMR-Spektroskopie das dynamische Verhalten von RNA, z.B. Entfaltungsprozesse bei ansteigender Temperatur, beobachtet. Jedoch erlauben diese experimentellen Daten oft keine direkte mikroskopische Beschreibung der molekularen Prozesse. Molekulardynamik (MD)-Simulationen von biologischen Systemen ermöglichen es hingegen, diese Prozesse in atomischem Detail zu untersuchen. Die MD-Simulation beschreibt ein molekulares System auf atomarer Ebene mit Hilfe der klassischen Mechanik. Kräfte werden von empirischen Potentialen abgeleitet. Sie liefern zeitabhängige Trajektorien, die sich aus den Newton'schen Bewegungsgleichungen ergeben. Durch verbesserte Computerleistung, bessere Kraftfelder, und neu entwickelte genauere Methoden stimmen heutzutage MD-Simulationen von RNA mit experimentellen Daten immer besser überein. In meiner Doktorarbeit wurden MD-Simulationen durchgeführt um die Dynamik, die Struktur und insbesondere die Stabilität von RNA-Hairpins theoretisch zu beschreiben, um so ein erweitertes Verständnis für die dynamischen Vorgänge zu erhalten. Auch der SFB 579 der Universität Frankfurt beschäftigt sich mit RNA-Systemen. Erforscht wird unter anderem der D-Loop des Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), der Virenmyocarditis verursacht. Die Interpretation dieser experimentellen Daten wird durch MD-Simulation möglich. In dieser Arbeit wurden das GROMACS Software-Paket und das AMBER Kraftfeld verwendet, um das strukturelle, dynamische und thermische Verhalten der RNA-Hairpins mit Hilfe von MD-Simulationen auf atomarer Ebene zu untersuchen. Betrachtet wurden die 14-mer RNA-Hairpins, uCACGg und cUUCGg. Die verfügbaren NMR-Strukturen zeigen, dass das uCACGg-Tetraloop auffallend ähnlich in der gesamten Geometrie und den Wasserstoffbindungen zu der experimentellen Struktur des cUUCGg-Tetraloop ist, obwohl die schließende Basenpaarsequenz der beiden Tetraloops unterschiedlich sind. Trotz beachtlicher struktureller Ähnlichkeit unterscheiden sich allerdings die uCACGg und cUUCGg Tetraloops in Funktionalität und Thermostabilität. Zunächst orientiert sich unser erstes Bemühen an der Frage nach einem guten Modell für RNA-Hairpins und Simulationsbedingungen, um die zu untersuchenden RNA-Hairpins in Wasser möglichst realitätsnah zu simulieren. Erstens werden drei Versionen des biomolekularen AMBER-Kraftfelds geprüft, indem man die 60 ns Simulationen des 14-mer uCACGg-Hairpins durchführt. Die simulierten strukturellen Eigenschaften und Atomfluktuationen zeigen hohe Ähnlichkeiten in den drei Kraftfeldern. Darüber hinaus stimmen die von MD-Simulationen berechneten Atomkernabstände mit den experimentellen NMR-Daten gut überein. Die gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Simulationen und den strukturellen NMR Daten belegt die Fähigkeit des AMBER-Kraftfelds zur Beschreibung der strukturellen Eigenschaft von kleinen RNA-Hairpins. Anschließend werden die Einflüsse der Methoden, welche die langreichweitigen, elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen beschreiben, auf die strukturellen Eigenschaften untersucht. Insbesondere werden die Ergebnisse der Reaktionfeld-Methode mit denen der Particle Mesh Ewald (PME)-Methode verglichen. Es zeigt sich, dass die PME-Methode die elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen am besten beschreibt, auch wenn die Simulationen der beiden Methoden Ähnlichkeit in der Struktur-Stabilität und der Atomfluktuation bei niedriger Natriumkonzentration aufweisen. Drittens wird der Kationseffekt auf die RNA-Stabilität untersucht. Betrachtet wurden zwei unterschiedliche Kationen (ein- und zweiwertig) und verschiedene Konzentrationen. Die Simulationen weisen darauf hin, dass sich die Metallionen in der Affinität zum RNA-Hairpin unterscheiden, wenn Na+ und/oder Mg2+ als Gegenionen verwendet werden. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass sich die bevorzugten Positionen der Na+-Ionen in der großen Furche (major groove) des RNA-Hairpins befinden. Insbesondere die Anlagerungsort der Na+-Ionen liegen in der Nähe des schließenden Basenpaar U5-G10. Im Vergleich zu Na+-Ionen lagern sich Mg2+-Ionen sowohl an die RNA-Basen U3, A4-U11, und die Phosphat-Gruppe, als auch an das schließenden Basenpaar U5-G10 an. Bestätigt werden die Modelle und Simulationsbedingungen durch den Vergleich von Parametern, die sowohl experimentell als auch durch Simulationen ermittelt werden können. Ferner erlauben MD-Simulationen Einblick in das System, indem sie detallierte Konformations- und andere Verteilungen liefern. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Einflüsse der Loopsequenz und des schließenden Basenpaares auf die Verteilung der Konformationen, der internen Bewegungen, und auf die Thermostabilität von zwei RNA-Hairpins mit Hilfe dieser Modelle untersucht. Zunächst wurden die strukturellen Eigenschaften bei Raumtemperatur ausgewertet. Die starken strukturellen Ähnlichkeiten und die gute Übereinstimmung mit NMR-Daten bestätigen die Hypothese, dass die zwei Tetraloops zur gleichen “erweiterten” RNA-Familie gehören. Diese zwei Hairpins haben ähnliche Lösemittelzugängliche Oberflächen (solvent accessible surface), wobei deren Lösemittel zugänglichen funktionellen Gruppen unterschiedlich sind. Weiterhin weist das uCACGg-Hairpin eine stärkere Tendenz auf Wasserstoffe abzugeben als das cUUCGg-Hairpin, was in den unterschiedlichen Bindungsaffinitäten zwischen diesen Hairpins und der viralen Protease begründet liegt. Darüber hinaus wurde der Faltungs- und Entfaltungsprozess mit Hilfe der Replica-Exchange-Molekulardynamik-Simulationen untersucht. Diese Untersuchung zielt auf das bessere Verständnis der unterschiedlichen Thermostabilität der Hairpins, indem sie die möglichen Zwischenprodukte im atomaren Detail liefern. Sowohl experimentell als auch von den MD-Simulationen ergibt sich eine Differenz in den Schmelztemperaturen der beiden Hairpins von ungefähr 20 K. Allerdings sind die von MD beobachteten Schmelztemperaturen 20 % höher als die von Experiment zu ansehende Wert. Die Ergebnisse machen deutlich, dass die Schmelztemperaturdifferenz nicht auf die Unterschiede in der Sequenz, in der Struktur, oder in der Dynamik der Loops zurückführen sind, sondern auf die Unterschiede der Basenpaaren in den Stämmen. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass sich das uCACGg-Hairpin einerseits kooperativ entfaltet, und die Entfaltung des cCACGg-Hairpins anderseits weniger kooperativ stattfindet. Um die schnelle interne Dynamik der uCACGg- und cUUCGg-Hairpins zu untersuchen, erlauben die Simulationen von 50 ns eine akurate Beschreibung der schnellen internen Bewegung der RNA-Hairpin, obwohl der den Hairpins zugängliche Konformationsraum nicht vollständig abgedeckt wird. Die NMR-Relaxationsparameter, die mit Hilfe der MD-Simulationen zurückgerechnet wurden, bestätigen das Modell und die Simulationsbedingungen der MD-Simulationen. Im Hinblick auf die Übereinstimmung kann man den besten Ansatz zur Berechnung der NMR-Ordnungsparameter bestimmen. In dieser Arbeit wurden drei verschiedene Ansätze angewandt, nämlich das Fitting von 100 ps auf modellfreiem Ansatz nach Lipari-Szabo, equilibrium average, und das Gaussian Axial Fluctuation (GAF)-Modell. Die zwei letzteren können nur qualitativ mit den experimentellen Daten übereinstimmen. Die NMR-Ordnungsparameter können mit Hilfe des Modells von Lipari-Szabo richtig ermittelt werden, wenn sich die interne Bewegung in kleineren Zeitskalen als zur Gesamtbewegung vollzieht. Vorausetzung für die Berechnung dieses Modells ist aber, dass das Fitting der internen Korrelationsfunktionen nur auf den ersten Teil von 100 ps der Korrelationsfunktionen eingesetzt wird. Die berechneten Ordnungsparameter deuten auf ein unterschiedliches Verhalten der beiden Hairpins besonders im Loop-Bereich hin. Die konformationelle Umordnung, die beim UUCG-Loop beobachtet wurde, tritt beim CACG-Loop nicht ein. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass es durch den Einsatz von MD Simulationen ermöglicht wird, die strukturellen und dynamischen Eigenschaften der RNA-Systeme auf atomarer Ebene zu untersuchen. Als Schlussfolgerung zeigt diese Doktorarbeit, dass sich die Studie der konformationell Dynamik der RNA-Systeme durch die Kombination aus MD-Simulation und NMR-Spektroskopie sowie der Leistungsfähigkeit der MD-Simulationen, die die interne Bewegungen deutlich beschreiben können, untersuchen lässt.