Refine
Year of publication
- 2009 (31) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (31) (remove)
Has Fulltext
- yes (31) (remove)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (31)
Keywords
- Theoretische Physik (3)
- Quark-Gluon-Plasma (2)
- Relativistische Hydrodynamik (2)
- Schwerionenstoß (2)
- Strahldynamik (2)
- relativistic hydrodynamics (2)
- ATR-Spektroskopie (1)
- Abstandsinformation (1)
- Akupunktur (1)
- Akustik (1)
Institute
- Physik (31) (remove)
In this thesis we report on the high pressure synthesis, crystal growth, structural characterisation and magnetic properties of the cubic vanadate pyrochlores A2V2O7 (with A = Y, Er and Dy). We have found that high pressure is requisite for the stabilization of the selected compounds. For this purpose, a multianvil high pressure apparatus was built in our laboratory and a new multianvil inset (i.e., a ceramic pressure medium and the interior parts) was developed. The multianvil press is based on a hydraulic press with a maximum force of 7.73 MN (corresponds to 788 tons), a Walker type module and a specially designed hydraulic and electric control. Pressure calibration of the multianvil setup was performed by high pressure fixed points (i.e. solid-solid transformation of Bi I-II (2.55 GPa) and Bi II-III (3.15 GPa)). A maximum pressure of 6 GPa was attained using hardened metal anvils (tungsten carbide) with truncation edge length (TEL) of 14 mm and a sample volume of ~ 70 mm3. Heating of the sample in our current multianvil setup (TEL = 14 mm) was achieved by resistive heating of a graphite furnace. Temperatures up to 1500 °C could be obtained at pressures up to 6 GPa. By systematic variation of the synthesis conditions (for instance the operation temperature or the choice of the crucible material) under high pressure and taking into account the well known ternary compounds, when accessing the phase diagram, the cubic vanadate pyrochlores A2V2O7 (with A = Y, Er and Dy) were synthesized successfully. It was found that the oxygen partial pressure is crucial for the formation of the desired pyrochlore phase. Gas-tight platinum crucibles were used as container material for the synthesis of the vanadate pyrochlores. We have investigated, that pressures of the order of 5.0 GPa and temperatures of approximately 1200 °C are necessary for the stabilization of the monophasic samples of the vanadate pyrochlores. Lu2V2O7 could be synthesized under ambient pressure conditions and is used in our studies for comparison purposes. A special graphite furnace was developed for the high pressure crystal growth of the vanadate pyrochlores. For the first time, A2V2O7 (with A = Y, Er and Dy) single crystals with a maximum size of 0.4 mm were grown by using the grain growth method at high pressure and high temperature conditions. The samples (i.e., powders and single crystals) were characterised by single crystal Xray diffraction, X-ray powder diffraction method, Laue method and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Complementary to the X-ray diffraction methods, infrared absorsoption spectroscopy was used to distinguish between the fluorite and pyrochlore structure. It has been shown that all samples crystallize in a well-ordered cubic structure with the space group F d 3m. The vanadium (+4) content in the samples was determined by oxidative weight gain in air using a thermogravimetric (TG) balance. A structural phase transformation of cubic to tetragonal was observed by differential thermal analysis (DTA) in conjunction with high temperature diffractometry. The magnetic characterisation of the vanadate pyrochlores A2V2O7 (Y, Lu, Er and Dy) was performed by Katarina Removic-Langer in the laboratory of Prof. Dr. M. Lang. All materials studied are ferromagnetic. The ferromagnetic critical temperatures are between 70 and 73 K. In case of Er2V2O7 and Dy2V2O7 an additional increase in the magnetization was observed below 20 K. The increase in the magnetization below 20 K exhibited by Er2V2O7 and Dy2V2O7 originates from the interactions between the two magnetic sublattices (i.e., the rare earth- and the vanadium sublattice).
Zahlreiche physikalische Prozesse, wie Bremsstrahlung, Synchrotronstrahlung oder Radiative Rekombination verursachen die Emission linear hochpolarisierter Röntgenstrahlung. Dennoch wird technisch nutzbare hochpolarisierte Röntgenstrahlung derzeit fast ausschließlich von einigen wenigen hochspezialisierten Synchrotronlichtquellen oder Freie Elektronen Lasern zur Verfügung gestellt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der Radiative Einfang in die K-Schale von nacktem Xenon verwendet, um erstmals eine Quelle einstellbarer, monoenergetischer sowie hochpolarisierter Röntgenstrahlung (97%) in einer Speicherringumgebung zu realisieren. Zum Nachweis der Polarisation der Strahlung wurde erstmals auch ein neuartiger orts-, zeit- und energieauflösender Si(Li) Streifendetektor als Röntgenpolarimeter eingesetzt, mit dem die Beschränkungen traditioneller Compton - Polarimeter umgangen werden können. Der gemessene Grad hoher linearer Polarisation, der mit den Vorhersagen durch die Theorie übereinstimmt, ist durchaus bemerkenswert, da die hochpolarisierte Röntgensstrahlung in einem Stoßprozess zwischen einem unpolarisierten Ionenstrahl und einem unpolarisierten Gasjet zustande kam. Dies bedeutet, dass der Radiative Elektroneneinfang ein ideales Werkzeug darstellt, um hochpolarisierte, energetisch frei wählbare Röntgenstrahlung in einer Speicherringumgebung zu erzeugen. Die Entwicklung der neuen 2D Detektortechnologie eröffnet auch Möglichkeiten zur experimentellen Untersuchung der Details atomphysikalischer Vorgänge. So konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durch die Kombination des verwendeten Detektors und der Beschleunigereinrichtung der GSI erstmals experimentell die lineare Polarisation der Strahlung des Radiativen Elektroneneinfangs in die energetisch partiell aufgelösten L-Unterschalen von nacktem Uran bestimmt werden. Zudem wurden neue und präzisere Werte für die Polarisation der Einfangstrahlung in die K-Schalen von nacktem und wasserstoffähnlichem Uran gemessen. Die theoretischen Vorhersagen zeigten eine starke Sensitivität von Messungen linearer Polarisation der bei dem Radiativen Elektroneneinfang emittierten Strahlung auf den Einfluss der insbesondere bei Schwerionen - Atom - Stößen zu berücksichtigenden höheren Ordnungen der Multipolentwicklung. Während die Effekte bei der Messung von Winkelverteilungen des Radiativen Elektroneneinfangs gerade bei den kleineren Winkeln im Bezug auf die Ionenstrahlachse im Laborsystem vergleichsweise gering ausfallen, ist hier ein sehr ausgeprägter Effekt der Depolarisation zu beobachten. Hier liegt der wesentliche Unterschied zwischen den in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Messungen der linearen Polarisation der Strahlung des Radiativen Einfangs in Xenon sowie in Uran. Das Auftreten der starken Depolarisation veranschaulicht die starke Abhängigkeit der Polarisationscharakteristik des REC-Prozesses von der Kernladungszahl des Projektils. Abschließend sei der Schritt zu der erstmals für diese Arbeit verwendeten Messtechnik mit einem hochaufgelösten Streifendetektor hervorgehoben. Im Gegensatz zu früheren Polarisationsmessungen mit grob dimensionierten Pixeldetektoren waren zu der Gewinnung der hier vorgestellten Messungen praktisch keinerlei zusätzliche Annahmen oder Simulationen zu der Interpretation der gewonnenen Winkelverteilungen notwendig. So konnte mit dem System bereits während des Experimentes eine erste Abschätzung der linearen Polarisation der beobachteten Strahlung durchgeführt werden. Diese Tatsache wird es in naher Zukunft ermöglichen, das für die niederenergetische Röntgenstrahlung weitgehend neue ”Fenster” polarimetrischer Messungen für weitere atomphysikalische Prozesse zu öffnen.
In the framework of this thesis the intense low energy ion beam transport was investigated. Especially, the beam transport in toroidal magnetic field configurations was discussed, as it may allow the accumulation of high intensive beams in the future. One of the specific tasks is to design an injection system that can be used for the proposed low energy accumulator ring. This thesis regarding beam transport investigations is related to the larger research fields, storage rings used in accelerator physics and non-neutral plasmas. The proposal of building a storage ring with longitudinal guiding magnetic fields was made. Due to natural transversal focussing in magnetic fields it is possible to accumulate very intense charged particle beams, a subject of interest within the physics community. A simulation code (TBT) was written to describe the particle motion in curved segments. Particle in Cell techniques were utilized to simulate a multi particle dynamics. This code allows the user to generate different particle distributions as input parameter. A possibility of reading an external data file was made available so that a measured distribution can be used to compare simulation results with measured ones. A second order cloud in cell method was used to calculate charge density and in turn to solve Poisson’s equation. The circular toroidal coordinate system was used. The drift motion and gyrating motion was proved to be consistent with analytical values. Further simulations were performed to study the self field effects on beam transport. The experiments with single toroidal segments find niche in the work. The experiments were performed to compare the simulation results and gain practical experience. The toroidal segment has similar dimensions (major axis R = 1:3 m, minor axis r = 0:1 m, arc angle 30°) as for a full scale ring design. The main difference lies in the magnetic field strength. The available segments can be operated at room temperature producing 0:6T on axis maximum magnetic field, while for the storage ring design this value is in the range of 5T. The preparatory experiments consisted of building and characterization of the ion source in a first step. Along with the momentum spectrometer and emittance scanner the beam properties were studied. Low mass ion beams He+ and mixed p, H2+, H3+ beams were analyzed. The proton beam consisting of a 48% H+ fraction was extracted regularly and used for further experiments. A moderate beam energy of 10 keV was chosen as operational energy for which 3.08 mA proton beam current was measured. In the second stage, beams were transported through a solenoid and the phase space distribution was measured as a function of the magnetic field for different beam energies. The phase-space as distributions measured in a first stage were simulated backward and then again forward transported through the solenoid. The simulated results were then compared with the measured distribution. The LINTRA transport program was used. The phase-space distribution was further simulated for transport experiments in a toroidal magnetic field. The experiments with a single toroidal segment give basic results necessary to compare the results between transport code (TBT) and measurements. The optical diagnostic provides measurements which can be well compared with the simulated results. A digital camera with a magnetic shield was used to record images in jpeg file format. A subroutine was written to analyze an image file to give the intensity distribution of a given image file. The integrated profile in vertical and horizontal direction was used to calculate the vertical drift and the beam size. The simulated values were in good agreement with the measured ones. The injection system needs most care. The transport program that was used to simulate the beam in the toroid was also used to design the injection system. The injection system with its special field configurations was designed to perform experiments with room temperature segments. The main point to tackle was to smoothly bring the charged particles generated outside the trap into the acceptance of the ring. The designed system consists of two sources, one representing a ring beam and the other one the injection beam. While simulations showed a clear way, how to inject the particle beam via a well positioned solenoid and in combination with a transverse electric field element causing an ExB drift into the main ring acceptance. After construction of these injection elements it will be very important to measure the robustness of such a system with respect to the beam stability- especially of the injection channel.
In this work the preparation of organic donor-acceptor thin films was studied. A chamber for organic molecular beam deposition was designed and integrated into an existing deposition system for metallic thin films. Furthermore, the deposition system was extended by a load-lock with integrated bake-out function, a chamber for the deposition of metallic contacts via stencil mask technique and a sputtering chamber. For the sublimation of the organic compounds several effusion cells were designed. The evaporation characteristic and the temperature profile within the cells was studied. Additionally, a simulation program was developed, which calculates the evaporation characteristics of different cell types. The following processes were integrated: evaporation of particles, migration on the cell walls and collisions in the gas phase. It is also possible to consider a temperature gradient within the cell. All processes can be studied separately and their relative strength can be varied. To verify the simulation results several evaporation experiments with different cell types were employed. The thickness profile of the prepared thin films was measured position-dependently. The results are in good agreement with the simulation. Furthermore, the simulation program was extended to the field of electron beam induced deposition (EBID). The second part of this work deals with the preparation and characterization of organic thin films. The focus hereby lies on the charge transfer salt (BEDT-TTF)(TCNQ), which has three known structure variants. Thin films were prepared by different methods of co-evaporation and were studied with optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX).The formation of the monoclinic phase of (BEDT-TTF)(TCNQ) could be shown. As a last part tunnel structures were prepared as first thin film devices and measured in a He4 cryostat.
Ein wesentliches Ziel der Physik mit schweren Ionen ist die Untersuchung der Zustände von Kernmaterie bei hohen Dichten bzw. Temperaturen. Solche Zustände lassen sich durch Kollisionen von hochenergetischen schweren Ionen in Teilchenbeschleunigern wie dem Super Proton Synchrotron SPS am Europäischen Kernforschungszentrum CERN in Genf erzeugen und untersuchen. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Analyse des Einflusses des in einer solchen Kollision erzeugten Mediums auf hochenergetische Teilchen, welche dieses Medium durchqueren. Hierzu werden Korrelationen zwischen Teilchen mit hohem Transversalimpuls pt als Funktion der Zentralität der Kollisionen und der Ladung der beteiligten Teilchen untersucht. Ziel ist es, hierdurch eine experimentelle Grundlage für die theoretische Beschreibung der Eigenschaften des Mediums in solchen Kollisionen bereitzustellen. ...
The current thesis is devoted to a systematic study of fluctuations and correlations in heavy-ion collisions, which might be considered as probes for the phase transition and the critical point in the phase diagram, within the Hadron-String- Dynamics (HSD) microscopic transport approach. This is a powerful tool to study nucleus-nucleus collisions and allows to completely simulate experimental collisions on an event-by-event basis. Thus, the transport model has been used to study fluctuations and correlations including the influence of experimental acceptance as well as centrality, system size and collision energy. The comparison to experimental data can separate the effects induced by a phase transition since there is no phase transition in the HSD version used here. Firstly the centrality dependence of multiplicity fluctuations has been studied. Different centrality selections have been performed in the analysis in correspondence to the experimental situation. For the fixed target experiment NA49 events with fixed numbers of the projectile participants have been studied while in the collider experiment PHENIX centrality classes of events have been defined by the multiplicity in certain phase space region. A decrease of participant number fluctuations (and thus volume fluctuations) in more central collisions for both experiments has been obtained. Another area of this work addresses to transport model calculations of multiplicity fluctuations in nucleus-nucleus collisions as a function of colliding energy and system size. This study is in full correspondence to the experimental program of the NA61 Collaboration at the SPS. Central C+C, S+S, In+In, and Pb+Pb nuclear collisions at Elab = 10, 20, 30, 40, 80, 158 AGeV have been investigated. The expected enhanced fluctuations - attributed to the critical point and phase transition - can be observed experimentally on top of a monotonic and smooth ‘hadronic background’. These findings should be helpful for the optimal choice of collision systems and collision energies for the experimental search of the QCD critical point. Other observables are fluctuations of ratios of hadrons (e.g. pions, kaons, protons, etc.) which are not so much affected by volume fluctuations. In particular HSD results for the kaon-to-pion ratio fluctuations, which has been regarded as promising observable for a long time, are presented from low SPS energies up to high energies at RHIC. In addition to the HSD calculations statistical model is also used in terms of microcanonical, canonical and grand canonical ensembles. Further a study of the system size event-by-event fluctuations causing rapidity forward-backward correlations in relativistic heavy-ion collisions is presented. The HSD simulations reveal strong forward-backward correlations and reproduce the main qualitative features of the STAR data in A+A collisions at RHIC energies. It has been shown that strong forward-backward correlations arise due to an averaging over many different events that belong to one centrality bin. An optimization of the experimental selection of centrality classes is presented, which is relevant for the program of the NA61 collaboration at CERN, the low-energy program at RHIC, as well as future experiments at FAIR.
This study addresses the structure-function relationships of three essential membrane proteins: Porin from Paracoccus denitrificans, Porin OmpG from Eschericia coli and BetP from Corynobacterium glutamicum using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) techniques. The structure of porin from P. denitrificans is known for more than a decade; however, the mechanism for loss of functionality together with the monomerization was not clear. In this study we have addressed the role of lipids for the functionality of porin using FT-IR. OmpF porin was found to interact with the lipid molecules via the aromatic girdles surrounding the protein for functionality. In this study, molecular bonds and groups of the lipids were established as reporter groups probing at different depths of the bilayer in order to understand the interaction partner of the aromatic girdles of porins. Monomerization of the trimeric assembly of OmpF porin reconstituted in lipids is induced by increasing the temperature. Porin (OmpF) was found to be extremely stable: The secondary structure of the protein was unaltered up to the temperature-induced main transition, around 80-90 °C, above which it is denatured. However, the interaction of the aromatic girdle with the lipid molecules exhibited distinct changes at much lower temperature values (40 - 50°) where, according to the previous functional studies, monomerization and the loss of function occurs. The results are compared with OmpG porin from E.coli, for which the functional unit is a monomer. The aromatic girdle-lipid interaction was monitored by the tyrosine aromatic ring C=C vibrational mode, a universal marker for the protein stability and interaction. We have also found that the aromatic girdles of porins are interacting with the interfacial region of the lipid bilayer instead of lipid headgroups. Lipid-protein interaction was found to be not only essential for the structural stability, but also for the functionality of OmpF porin. We have also studied the structural properties of OmpG from E.coli. The structure of OmpG at two pH values has been resolved using X-ray crystallography and the channel has been proposed to attain different states at different pH values as closed (pH < 5.5) and open (pH >7.5). This study, using IR spectroscopy, revealed that the pH-induced opening and closing of the channel is reflected by the frequency shifts of the ? sheet structure. OmpG has more rigid ? barrel properties upon opening of the channel. IR spectral analysis revealed multiple ? sheet signals with different hydrogen bond strengths. This enabled us to monitor the formation of hydrogen bridges between the extracellular loops upon opening of the channel. The conclusion that OmpG porin having two states at different pH values was also confirmed by the three mutants where the role of the histidine pair (H231 & H261) and loop 6 has been addressed. Temperature-profiling of the wild type (WT) protein and the mutants did not show pH dependent structural stability differences in detergent solution. However, the WT protein was found to be more stable in the open form in 2D crystals than the closed form. Reconstitution into lipids has increased the transition temperature value by ~20 °C in the closed state and ~25 °C in the open state. Therefore we conclude that the open and closed state of OmpG has structural stability differences that are only revealed in the lipid environment. A comparison of the transition temperature values of OmpG WT and the mutants suggested that the hydrogen bond network among S218-H231-H261-D267, together with the formation of 12 residue-long ?-sheet contributes to the structural stability of the open channel. In the process of closing and opening of the channel, the globular structure of the protein remains mainly unchanged, while there are changes in the side chain moieties. In addition to the role of the histidine pair and the loop L6, in situ opening/closing experiments showed that the negatively charged amino acids, i.e. Asp and Glu, and Arg residues also play an active role; possibly by interacting with each other inside the pore lumen. Therefore it could be concluded that the closure of the channel at acidic pH values is not only via closing the channel entrance by loop 6, but also via changing the electric potential inside the lumen due to the different states of charged amino acids in order to effectively block the gateway. BetP from C.glutamicum attains an active and inactive state in order to adjust its glycine betaine uptake rate to the osmotic conditions that the cell encounters. The structure of BetP is not yet available. The WT protein exhibited structural differences in the presence of excess K+, which is one of the activation conditions. In 2D crystals, increasing the ionic strength to 700 mM K+ was shown to induce changes in the ?-helical moiety with contributions from the ester groups and one Tyr residue using ATR-FTIR. An increase in ionic strength to 220 mM K+ was found to be the threshold value of potassium concentration ([K+]) where the protein exhibits structural alterations in detergent solution. The determined [K+] values are in good agreement with the previous functional studies. However, there are differences in the activation profile of BetP in 2D crystals and in detergent solution, which points out that the lipids are involved in the conformational transition from the inactive to the active state and their absence can lead to different structural properties. BetP WT was found to have ~65% alpha-helix, ~25% random coil and ~10% turn structure in detergent solution. In the presence of excess K+, the WT protein is found to adapt more unordered structure. Secondary structure analysis of the mutants revealed that both the N- and C-terminus are in ?-helical conformation. Reconstitution of WT protein in 2D crystals increased the main transition (denaturation) temperature value from ~62 °C to ~85 °C, a clear indication that the protein is more stable in lipid environment. Temperature-profiling of the two forms of the WT protein revealed that the structural breakdown is preceeded by monomerization of the trimeric assembly. Comparing the two forms of the WT protein and the mutant BetA, we conclude that the oligomeric status is stabilized via the interactions among hydrophilic regions involving the N terminus. H/D exchange and activation with excess K+ in D2O-buffer revealed that activation of the protein involves the interaction of Arg and Asp/Glu residues in the cytoplasmic region of the protein. BetP WT and the two mutants tested, i.e. BetA and BetP?C45, showed differences in protein packing upon activation. The WT protein and BetP?C45 mutant also show changes in the hydrogen bonding properties of turns. Since BetA does not show such a property in activation, we conclude that the N-terminus interacts with the loops in the inactive state via the interaction of charged amino acids for the WT protein and that this interaction is altered during the activation. It could be argued that the protein packing is affected via the changes in turns upon activation. We also have found experimental evidence that one Tyr residue has different orientations in the active and inactive state of BetP. Based on the previous functional studies, it could be one of the five Tyr residues in the cytoplasmic region of the protein (in loop 3, 6, 7 or C-terminus). The mutant BetP?C45, on the other hand, showed fewer differences between the active and inactive state conditions and based on the H/D exchange rates, the mutant shows the properties of an active WT protein, proving that the C-terminal truncation impairs the conformational transition between the active and inactive states.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die 1s Photoionisation von Neondimeren mit einer Photonenenergie von 10 eV über der 1s Schwelle von Neon durchgeführt. Das Ziel dieser Messung war die Beantwortung der seit vielen Jahren diskutierten Frage nach der Lokalisierung oder Delokalisierung von Vakanzen in homonuklearen diatomaren Systemen am Beispiel des Neondimers. Können die Vakanzen also einem Atom des Dimers zugeordnet werden oder sind sie über beide Atome verteilt? Bezüglich dieser Frage wurden sowohl die in der Photoionisation direkt entstandenen 1s Vakanzen als auch die aus der Relaxation durch einen interatomic Coulombic decay (ICD) resultierenden Vakanzen in der Valenzschale des Neondimers untersucht. Als Observable dienten dabei die Elektronen-Winkelverteilungen im dimerfesten Koordinatensystem, wobei eine bezüglich der ‘rechten’ und der ‘linken’ Seite des homonuklearen diatomaren Moleküls auftretende Asymmetrie in der Winkelverteilung eindeutig eine Lokalisierung der Vakanz indiziert. Dies lässt sich damit begründen, dass die Elektronenwellen im Fall einer delokalisierten Vakanz durch die symmetrisierten Wellenfunktionen beschrieben werden, welche sich aus der kohärenten Überlagerung der lokalisierten Wellenfunktionen ergeben. Die resultierende Winkelverteilung der Elektronen um die Dimerachse ist somit symmetrisch. Im Fall einer lokalisierten Vakanz wird die Elektronenwelle dagegen durch die ‘rechts’ oder ‘links’ lokalisierten Wellenfunktionen, welche aus der kohärenten Überlagerung der symmetrisierten Wellenfunktionen gebildet werden, beschrieben, so dass abhängig von der Elektronenwellenlänge Asymmetrien in der Elektronen-Winkelverteilung auftreten können. Die Möglichkeit, eine eventuelle Asymmetrie in der Winkelverteilung um die Dimerachse zu beobachten ist allerdings nur dann gegeben, wenn die beiden Seiten des Dimers im Anschluss an die Reaktion unterscheidbar sind, d.h. der Ursprung des emittierten Elektrons feststellbar ist, da sich sonst der Fall einer ‘links’ lokalisierten Vakanz mit dem Fall einer ‘rechts’ lokalisierten Vakanz kohärent überlagert. Die Unterscheidung konnte in der vorliegenden Messung anhand der aus einigen Relaxationen hervorgehenden unterschiedlichen Ladungen der ionischen Fragmente des Neondimers durchgeführt werden. Insgesamt wurden im Anschluss an die 1s Photoionisation von Ne2 mit einer Rate von 3:1 der symmetrische Ladungsaufbruch Ne1+ + Ne1+ und der für die Untersuchung der Winkelverteilungen relevante asymmetrische Ladungsaufbruch Ne2+ + Ne1+ des Neondimers beobachtet. Alle in diesen beiden Ladungsaufbrüchen resultierenden intra- und interatomaren Relaxationsprozesse sowie ihre Raten wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit identifiziert und analysiert. Der dominante Zerfallskanal des symmetrischen Ladungsaufbruchs resultierte dabei aus dem im Anschluss an einen KL2,3L2,3 stattfindenden Radiative Charge Transfer, bei welchem unter Aussendung eines Photons ein Ladungsaustausch zwischen den Neonionen des Dimers stattfindet. Der dominante Zerfallskanal des asymmetrischen Ladungsaufbruchs wurde durch den im Anschluss an einen KL1L2,3 stattfindenden ICD bestimmt. Bei diesem in Clustern auftretenden Relaxationsprozess wird die Innerschalenvakanz aus Atom 1 durch ein Valenzelektron aus Atom 1 aufgefüllt. Sobald die Relaxationsenergie dabei nicht ausreicht, um, wie beim Augerzerfall, ein weiteres Valenzelektron aus Atom 1 zu ionisieren, wird die Energie mittels eines virtuellen Photons zum neutralen Nachbaratom des Dimers transferiert, und aus diesem wird ein Elektron, das ICD-Elektron, emittiert. Zur experimentellen Untersuchung der verschiedenen Zerfälle wurde die COLTRIMS (COLd Target Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy)-Technik verwendet. Bei dieser Impulsspektroskopie werden die Fragmente mit einer Raumwinkelakzeptanz von 4pi mit Hilfe eines elektrischen und eines magnetischen Feldes auf die ortsauflösenden Detektoren geführt, und ihre Flugzeiten und Auftrefforte werden gemessen. Die COLTRIMS-Technik zeichnet sich dabei dadurch aus, dass eine koinzidente Messung der Elektronen und Ionen möglich ist, wodurch die Fragmente eines Reaktionsereignisses einander zugeordnet werden können. Innerhalb der Reaktionsereignisse fragmentierte das Neondimer im Anschluss an die Relaxation in beiden Ladungsaufbrüchen Ne1+ + Ne1+ und Ne2+ + Ne1+ unter 180° in einer Coulombexplosion. Somit spiegelten die Richtungen der Relativimpulse der Ionen im Rahmen der ‘Axial-Recoil-Approximation’ die Position der Dimerachse zum Zeitpunkt der Reaktion wider, und aus den Impulsen der Elektronen konnten die Emissionsrichtungen der Elektronen bezüglich der Dimerachse abgeleitet werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde mit der beschriebenen Messtechnik eine deutliche Asymmetrie in der Winkelverteilung der 1s Photoelektronen sowie der 2p ICD-Elektronen um die Dimerachse beobachtet. Die gemessene Winkelverteilung der 1s Photoelektronen wies dabei eine qualitativ sehr gute Übereinstimmung mit einer innerhalb einer Hartree-Fock-Rechnung erhaltenen Winkelverteilung für eine vollständig lokalisierte 1s Vakanz im Neondimer auf. Für die Winkelverteilungen der ICD-Elektronen existieren bis heute noch keine theoretischen Vorhersagen. Mit den Ergebnissen der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte somit gezeigt werden, dass entgegen den heute gängigen Theorien zur Beschreibung des Neondimers sowohl die Vakanzen der innersten Schale als auch die Vakanzen der Valenzschale des Neondimers als lokalisiert beschrieben werden müssen.
This thesis is devoted to the developement of a classical model for the study of the energetics and stability of carbon nanotubes. The motivation behind such a model stems from the fact that production of nanotubes in a well-controlled manner requires a detailed understanding of their energetics. In order to study this different theoretical approaches are possible, ranging from the computationally expensive quantum mechanical first principle methods to the relatively simple classical models. A wisely developed classical model has the advantage that it could be used for systems of any possible size while still producing reasonable results. The model developed in this thesis is based on the well-known liquid drop model without the volume term and hence we call it liquid surface model. Based on the assumption that the energy of a nanotube can be expressed in terms of its geometrical parameters like surface area, curvature and shape of the edge, liquid surface model is able to predict the binding energy of nanotubes of any chirality once the total energy and the chiral indices of it are known. The model is suggested for open end and capped nanotubes and it is shown that the energy of capped nanotubes is determined by five physical parameters, while for the open end nanotubes three parameters are sufficient. The parameters of the liquid surface model are determined from the calculations performed with the use of empirical Tersoff and Brenner potentials and the accuracy of the model is analysed. It is shown that the liquid surface model can predict the binding energy per atom for capped nanotubes with relative error below 0.3% from that calculated using Brenner potential, corresponding to the absolute energy difference being less than 0.01 eV. The influence of the catalytic nanoparticle on top of which a nanotube grows, on the nanotube energetics is also discussed. It is demonstrated that the presence of catalytic nanoparticle changes the binding energy per atom in such a way that if the interaction of a nanotube with the catalytic nanoparticle is weak then attachment of an additional atom to a nanotube is an energetically favourable process, while if the catalytic nanoparticle nanotube interaction is strong , it becomes energetically more favourable for the nanotube to collapse. The suggested model gives important insights in the energetics and stability of nanotubes of different chiralities and is an important step towards the understanding of nanotube growth process. Young modulus and curvature constant are calculated for single-wall carbon nanotubes from the paremeters of the liquid surface model and demonstrated that the obtained values are in agreement with the values reported earlier both theoretically and experimentally. The calculated Young modulus and the curvature constant were used to conclude about the accuracy of the Tersoff and Brenner potentials. Since the parameters of the liquid surface model are obtained from the Tersoff and Brenner potential calculations, the agreement of elastic properties derived from these parameters corresponds to the fact that both potentials are capable of describing the elastic properties of nanotubes. Finally, the thesis discuss the possible extension of the model to various systems of interest.
In this work we investigate phenomenological aspects of an anisotropic quark-gluon plasma. In the first part of this thesis, we formulate phenomenologicalmodels that take into account the momentumspace anisotropy of the system developed during the expansion of the fireball at early-times. By including the proper-time dependence of the parton hard momentum scale, phard(), and the plasma anisotropy parameter, Xi, the proposed models allow us to interpolate from 0+1 pre-equilibrated expansion at early-times to 0+1 ideal hydrodynamics at late times. We study dilepton production as a valuable observable to experimentally determine the isotropization time of the system as well as the degree of anisotropy developed at early-times. We generalize our interpolating models to include the rapidity dependence of phard and consider its impact on forward dileptons. Next, we discuss how to constrain the onset of hydrodynamics by demanding two requirements of the solutions to the equations of motion of viscous hydrodynamics. We show this explicitly for 0+1 dimensional 2nd-order conformal viscous hydrodynamics and find that the initial conditions are non-trivially constrained. Finally, we demonstrate how to match the initial conditions for 0+1 dimensional viscous hydrodynamics from pre-equilibrated expansion. We analyze the dependence of the entropy production on the pre-equilibrium phase and discuss limitations of the standard definitions of the non-equilibrium entropy in kinetic theory.