Refine
Year of publication
- 2010 (2776) (remove)
Document Type
- Article (970)
- Doctoral Thesis (378)
- Book (338)
- Part of Periodical (337)
- Part of a Book (212)
- Contribution to a Periodical (144)
- Review (141)
- Working Paper (84)
- Report (71)
- Conference Proceeding (31)
Language
- German (1691)
- English (841)
- mis (105)
- Portuguese (49)
- French (32)
- Croatian (29)
- Multiple languages (12)
- Italian (7)
- dut (3)
- Spanish (3)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (2776) (remove)
Keywords
- Mosambik (114)
- Mozambique (114)
- Moçambique (113)
- Filmmusik (96)
- Deutsch (75)
- Christentum (65)
- Bibel (63)
- bible (63)
- christianity (63)
- Literatur (40)
Institute
- Extern (296)
- Medizin (292)
- Präsidium (235)
- Gesellschaftswissenschaften (99)
- Biowissenschaften (98)
- Biochemie und Chemie (97)
- Physik (87)
- Geschichtswissenschaften (68)
- Geowissenschaften (59)
- Wirtschaftswissenschaften (54)
Development of lentiviral vectors for the gene therapy of X-linked chronic granulomatous disease
(2010)
Es gibt eine Vielzahl von Erkrankungen, die auf einen einzelnen Gendefekt zurückzuführen sind (monogene Erkrankungen). Darunter befindet sich auch die Gruppe der primären Immundefizienzen (PIDs), von denen aktuell über 150 verschiedene Typen von der Weltgesundheitsorganisation registriert sind. In vielen fällen leiden betroffene Individuen unter einem stark erhöhten Infektionsrisiko durch bakterielle oder virale Pathogene, sowie den damit verbundenen schweren Symptomen - bis hin zum verfrühten Tod der Patienten. Meist können PIDs mit konventionellen Methoden präventiv behandelt werden. Dazu gehören zum Beispiel die regelmässige Gabe von Antibiotika, Antimykotika, Zytokinen oder Immunglobulinen. Der einzige zur Verfügung stehende kurative Behandlungsansatz beruht auf der Transplantation von hämatopoietischen Stammzellen (HSZT) eines gesunden und passenden Spenders. Häufig steht jedoch kein histokompatibler Spender zur Verfügung.
Für diese Patientengruppe hat sich die gentherapeutische Behandlung mit autologen hämatopoietischen Stammzellen als eine gute Option herausgestellt. Der Beweis hierfür wurde eindrucksvoll in klinischen Heilversuchen für zwei Formen des Schweren Kombinierten Immundefekts (X-SCID und ADA-SCID) geführt, einer Erkrankung die durch das vollständige Fehlen bzw. die nicht-Funktionalität der lymphoiden Immunzellen charakterisiert ist. Autologe hämatopoietische Stammzellen der Patienten wurden hier ex vivo mittels eines gamma-retroviralen Vektors mit einer funktionellen Kopie der defekten cDNA genetisch modifiziert und anschliessend zurück infundiert. In der Summe wurde bei über 30 Patienten eine deutliche Verbesserung des Gesundheitszustandes bis hin zur vollständigen Heilung erzielt. Bei einem vergleichbaren Ansatz wurden in Frankfurt, in einem Heilversuch für die septische Granulomatose (X-CGD), erstmals klinisch relevante Erfolge in der Gentherapie für einen Defekt in der myeloischen Linie von Immunzellen erzielt. Ursache der X-chromosomal gekoppelten Form der septischen Granulomatose sind Mutationen in dem Gen für gp91phox (CYBB), einer essentiellen Untereinheit des in Phagozyten benötigten NADPH-Oxidase Komplexes. In der Folge sind die Phagozyten dieser Patienten nicht mehr in der Lage, die für das Abtöten von Krankheitserregern nötigen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies zu bilden. Ständig wiederkehrende schwere Infektionen mit sonst unproblematischen Erregern sind die Folge.
Neben klaren gesundheitlichen Verbesserungen in der Mehrzahl der Patienten hatte diese Gentherapeutische Behandlungsstrategie in einigen Fällen auch klare Nebenwirkungen. In fünf von 20 Patienten mit X-SCID, sowie in beiden behandelten X-CGD Patienten, kam es infolge der Therapie zu hämatologischen Veränderungen, die in der Ausbildung eines myelodysplastischen Syndroms (bei X-CGD) und Leukämie (bei X-SCID) mündeten. In allen Fällen war die Ursache eine Hochregulierung von Proto-Onkogenen in der Nähe von g-retroviralen Integrationsstellen. Diese Probleme demonstrieren deutlich die unbedingte Notwendigkeit zur Verbesserung der verwendeten therapeutischen Vektoren.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden lentivirale Vektoren mit myeloid-spezifischen Promotoren entwickelt und auf ihre Eignung für die Gentherapie der X-chromosomal gekoppelten septischen Granulomatose getestet. Lentivirale Vektoren besitzen ein stark verringertes Risiko für Insertionsmutagenese, sowie die exklusive Fähigkeit ruhende Zellen zu transduzieren. Die Verwendung von myeloid-spezifischen Promotoren für die Transgenexpression verringert die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Proto-Onkogen Aktivierung in unreifen Stamm- und Vorläuferzellen – einer Zellpopulation die besonders sensitiv für die in der Leukämieentstehung obligaten Schritte der Immortalisierung und Transformation ist. Gleichzeitig bleibt der volle therapeutische Nutzen erhalten, da das Transgen gp91phox nur in reifen myeloischen Zellen benötigt wird.
Die entwickelten lentiviralen Vektoren exprimieren eine kodonoptimierte gp91phox cDNA unter der Kontrolle des microRNA223-Promoters (223), des MRP8-Promotors (M) oder eines chimären Fusionspromoters bestehend aus den regulatorischen Bereichen des Cathepsin G und des cFes-Promotors (Chim). Zusätzlich wurde ein sogenanntes „ubiquitär aktives Chromatin-öffnendes Element“ (UCOE) in beiden Orientierungen vor den MRP8-Promotor kloniert, um eine erhöhte und stabile Langzeitexpression des Transgens zu erreichen. Ziel der Arbeit war die Selektion eines geeigneten Kandidaten für präklinische Versuchsreihen.
Die für die Evaluierung der Vektoren relevanten Parameter waren die Transgenexpressionslevel, die Spezifität der Expression für myeloische Zellen sowie die vermittelte funktionelle Rekonstitution der NADPH-Oxidase Aktivität. Die Fragestellungen der Langzeitexpression, der Anfälligkeit für CpG-Methylierung sowie der Genotoxizität der Vektoren wurden ebenfalls bearbeitet. Die Vektoren wurden in vitro in verschiedenen Zelllinien sowie in in vitro differenzierten primären murinen und humanen Blutstammzellen getestet. Die beiden besten Kandidaten (223 und Chim) wurden in vivo in Maustransplantationsexperimenten (Maus-Maus und humane Stammzellen in NOD/SCID-Mäuse) analysiert.
Die beiden lentiviralen Vektoren 223 und Chim eignen sich beide für eine effiziente Expression in myeloische Zellen, die zur funktionellen Rekonstitution der NADPH-Oxidase Aktivität in vitro und in vivo führen. Sie sind den bisher in klinischen Anwendungen verwendeten Vektoren in allen Parametern klar überlegen. Daher ist in zukünftigen klinischen Anwendungen ein verbesserter therapeutischer Nutzen für die Patienten sowie eine Verminderung des Risikos von Nebenwirkungen zu erwarten.
Although a variety of genetic strategies have been developed to inhibit HIV replication, few direct comparisons of the efficacy of these inhibitors have been carried out. Moreover, most studies have not examined whether genetic inhibitors are able to induce a survival advantage that results in an expansion of genetically-modified cells following HIV infection. We evaluated the efficacy of three leading genetic strategies to inhibit HIV replication: 1) an HIV-1 tat/rev-specific small hairpin (sh) RNA; 2) an RNA antisense gene specific for the HIV-1 envelope; and 3) a viral entry inhibitor, maC46. In stably transduced cell lines selected such that >95% of cells expressed the genetic inhibitor, the RNA antisense envelope and viral entry inhibitor maC46 provided the strongest inhibition of HIV-1 replication. However, when mixed populations of transduced and untransduced cells were challenged with HIV-1, the maC46 fusion inhibitor resulted in highly efficient positive selection of transduced cells, an effect that was evident even in mixed populations containing as few as 1% maC46-expressing cells. The selective advantage of the maC46 fusion inhibitor was also observed in HIV-1-infected cultures of primary T lymphocytes as well as in HIV-1-infected humanized mice. These results demonstrate robust inhibition of HIV replication with the fusion inhibitor maC46 and the antisense Env inhibitor, and importantly, a survival advantage of cells expressing the maC46 fusion inhibitor both in vitro and in vivo. Evaluation of the ability of genetic inhibitors of HIV-1 replication to confer a survival advantage on genetically-modified cells provides unique information not provided by standard techniques that may be important in the in vivo efficacy of these genes.
Background: Initiated by a clinical case of critical endotracheal tube (ETT) obstruction, we aimed to determine factors that potentially contribute to the development of endotracheal tube obstruction by its inflated cuff. Prehospital climate and storage conditions were simulated. Methods: Five different disposable ETTs (6.0, 7.0, and 8.0 mm inner diameter) were exposed to ambient outside temperature for 13 months. In addition, every second of these tubes was mechanically stressed by clamping its cuffed end between the covers of a metal emergency case for 10 min. Then, all tubes were heated up to normal body temperature, placed within the cock of a syringe, followed by stepwise inflation of their cuffs to pressures of 3 kPa and >=12 kPa, respectively. The inner lumen of the ETT was checked with the naked eye for any obstruction caused by the external cuff pressure. Results: Neither in tubes that were exposed to ambient temperature (range: -12°C to +44°C) nor in those that were also clamped, visible obstruction by inflated cuffs was detected at any of the two cuff pressure levels. Conclusions: We could not demonstrate a critical obstruction of an ETT by its inflated cuff, neither when the cuff was over-inflated to a pressure of 12 kPa or higher, nor in ETTs that had been exposed to unfavorable storage conditions and significant mechanical stress.
Background: Previously, we showed that glioma pathogenesis related protein (GliPR) is induced in CEM T cells upon HIV-1 infection in vitro. To examine whether GliPR plays a role as HIV dependency factor (HDF), we tested the effect of GliPR suppression by siRNA on HIV-1 replication. Results: Induction of GliPR expression by HIV-1 was confirmed in P4-CCR5 cells. When GliPR was suppressed by siRNA, HIV-1 replication was significantly reduced as measured by HIV-1 transcript levels, HIV-1 p24 protein levels, and HIV-1 LTR-driven reporter gene expression, suggesting that GliPR is a cellular co-factor of HIV-1. Microarray analysis of uninfected HeLa cells following knockdown of GliPR revealed, among a multitude of gene expression alterations, a down-regulation of syndecan-1, syndecan-2, protein kinase C alpha (PRKCA), the catalytic subunit beta of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PRKACB), nuclear receptor co-activator 3 (NCOA3), and cell surface protein CD59 (protectin), all genes having relevance for HIV-1 pathology. Conclusions: The up-regulation of GliPR by HIV-1 and the early significant inhibition of HIV-1 replication mediated by knockdown of GliPR reveal GliPR as an important HIV-1 dependency factor (HDF), which may be exploited for HIV-1 inhibition.
Fas Ligand (FasL; CD95L; CD178; TNSF6) is a 40 kDa glycosylated type II transmembrane protein with 279 aa in mice and 281 aa in humans that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. The extracellular domain (ECD) harbors a TNF homology domain, the receptor binding site, a motif for self assembly and trimerization, and several putative N-glycosylation and a metalloprotease cleavage site/s. The cytoplasmic tail of FasL is the longest of all TNFL family members and contains several conserved signaling motifs, such as a putative tandem Casein kinase I phosphorylation site, a unique proline-rich domain (PRD) and phosphorylatable tyrosine residues (Y7 in mice; Y7, Y9, Y13 in human). The FasL/Fas system is renowned for the potent induction of apoptosis in the receptor-bearing cell and is especially important for immune system functions. It is involved in the killing of target cells by natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T cells, in the (self) elimination of effector cells following the proliferative phase of an immune response (activation-induced cell death; AICD), in the maintenance of immuneprivileged sites and in the induction and maintenance of peripheral tolerance. Owing to its potent pro-apoptotic signaling capacity and important functions, FasL expression and activity are tightly regulated at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels and restricted to few cell types, such as immune effector cells and cells of immune-privileged sites. In contrast, Fas is expressed in a variety of tissues including lymphoid tissues, liver, heart, kidney, pancreas, brain and ovary. In addition to its pro-apoptotic function, the FasL/Fas system can also elicit nonapoptotic signals in the receptor-expressing cell. Among others, Fas-signaling exerts co-stimulatory functions in the immune system, e.g. by promoting survival, activation and proliferation of T cells. Besides the capacity to deliver a signal into receptor-bearing cells (‘forward signal’), FasL can receive and transmit signals into the ligand-expressing cell. This phenomenon has been described for several TNF family ligands and is known as ‘reverse signaling’. The first evidence for the existence of reverse signaling into FasL-bearing cells stems from two studies that demonstrated either co-stimulation of murine CD8+ T cell lines by FasL cross-linking or inhibition of activation-induced proliferation of murine CD4+ T cells. In both cases, the observed changes of proliferative behaviour critically depended on the presence of a signaling-competent FasL. Almost certainly, the FasL ICD is functionally involved in signal-transmission: (i) The ICD is highly conserved across species and harbors several signaling motifs, most notably a unique PRD. (ii) Numerous proteins have been identified which interact with the FasL PRD via their SH3 or WW domains and regulate various aspects of FasL biology, such as FasL sorting, storage, cell surface expression and the linkage of FasL to intracellular signaling pathways. (iii) Post-translational modifications of the ICD have been implicated in the sorting of FasL to vesicles and the FasL-dependent activation of Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT). (iv) Proteolytic processing of FasL liberates the ICD and allows its translocation into the nucleus where it might influence gene transcription. (v) It could be shown that overexpression of the FasL ICD is sufficient to initiate reverse signaling upon concomitant T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation and ICD cross-linking. Conflicting data on the consequences of FasL reverse signaling exist, and costimulatory as well as inhibitory functions have been reported. These discrepancies probably reflect the use of artificial experimental systems. Neither the precise molecular mechanism underlying FasL reverse signaling, nor its physiological relevance have been addressed at the endogenous protein level in vivo. Therefore, a ‘knockout/knockin’ mouse model in which wildtype FasL was replaced with a deletion mutant lacking the intracellular portion (FasL Delta Intra) was established in the group of PD Dr. Martin Zörnig. In the present study, FasL Delta Intra mice were phenotypically characterized and were employed to investigate the physiological consequences of FasL reverse signaling at the molecular and cellular level. To ensure that FasL Delta Intra mice represent a suitable model to study the consequences of FasL reverse signaling, we demonstrated that activated lymphocytes from homozygous FasL Delta Intra or wildtype mice express comparable amounts of (truncated) FasL at the cell surface. The truncated protein retains the capacity to induce apoptosis in Fas receptor-positive target cells, as co-culture assays with FasL-expressing activated lymphocytes and Fas-sensitive target cells showed. Additionally, systematic screening of unchallenged mice did not reveal any phenotypic abnormalities. Notably, signs of a lymphoproliferative autoimmune disease associated with FasL-deficiency could not be detected. As several reports have implicated FasL reverse signaling in the regulation of T cell expansion and activation, proliferation of lymphocytes isolated from FasL Delta Intra and wildtype mice in response to antigen receptor stimulation was investigated. Using CFSE dilution assays it could be demonstrated that the proliferative response of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells and of B cells was enhanced in the absence of the FasL ICD. Interestingly, this effect was most pronounced in B cells and could only be detected in CD4+ T cells after depletion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. To our Summary knowledge, this is the first time that FasL reverse signaling has been demonstrated in B cells. In a series of experiments, the activation of several pathways that are known to play important roles in signal-transmission initiated upon antigen receptor triggering was assessed. As a molecular correlate for the observed enhancement of activation-induced proliferation, Extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation was significantly increased in FasL Delta Intra mice following antigen receptor crosslinking. Surprisingly, B cell stimulation lead to a comparable extent of activating phosphorylations on S38 in c-Raf and S218/S222 in MEK1/2 in cells isolated from wildtype and FasL Delta Intra mice, indicating that Mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) upstream of ERK1/2 (Raf-1 and MEK1/2) apparently do not contribute to the differential regulation of ERK1/2. Experiments in which activation-induced Akt phosphorylation (S473) was quantified also did not suggest a participation of Phosphoinositol specific kinase 3 (PI3K)/Akt signals in this process. Instead, further characterization of the upstream pathway revealed an involvement of Phospholipase C gamma (PLC gamma) and Protein kinase C (PKC) signals in FasL-dependent ERK1/2- regulation. Previous studies in our group revealed a Notch-like processing of FasL, resulting in the transcriptional regulation of a reporter gene. Furthermore, an interaction of the FasL ICD with the transcription factor Lymphoid-enhancer binding factor-1 (Lef-1) that affected Lef-1-dependent reporter gene transcription could be demonstrated. Therefore, a molecular analysis of activated lymphocytes was performed to identify FasL reverse signaling target genes. The differential expression of promising candidates was verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), which showed that the transcription of genes associated with lymphocyte proliferation and activation was increased in FasL Delta Intra mice compared to wildtype mice. Interestingly, an extensive regulation of Lef-1-dependent Wnt/beta-Catenin signalingrelated genes was found. Lef-1 mRNA (RT-PCR) and protein (intracellular FACS staining) could be detected in mature B cells, suggesting the possibility of FasL ICD-mediated inhibition of Lef-1-dependent gene expression in these cells, initiated by Notch-like processing of FasL. To investigate the consequences of FasL reverse signaling in vivo, a potential participation of the FasL ICD in the regulation of immune responses upon various challenges was analyzed. In experiments in which thymocyte proliferation or the expansion of antigen-specific T cells following a challenge with the superantigen Staphylococcus enterotoxin B (SEB), with Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) or with Listeria monocytogenes were investigated, comparable results were obtained with wildtype and FasL Delta Intra mice. Likewise, the recruitment of neutrophils in a thioglycollate-induced model of peritonitis was not affected by deletion of the FasL ICD. These findings might reflect regulatory mechanisms operating in vivo, such as control exerted by regulatory T cells. Along these lines, proliferative differences in CD4+ T cells could only be detected ex vivo after depletion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Furthermore, several in vitro studies indicate that retrograde FasL signals can be observed under conditions of suboptimal lymphocyte stimulation, but not when the TCR is optimally stimulated. Therefore, the potent initiation of antigen receptor signaling by stimuli like SEB or LCMV might have masked inhibitory FasL reverse signaling in these experiments. In agreement with the observed hyperactivation of lymphocytes in the absence of the ICD ex vivo, the increase in germinal center B cells (GCs) following immunization with the hapten 3-hydroxy 4-nitrophenylacetyl (NP) and the number of antibody-secreting PCs was significantly higher in FasL Delta Intra mice. The larger quantity of PCs correlated with increased titers of NP-binding, i.e. antigen-specific, IgM and IgG1 antibodies in the serum of FasL Delta Intra mice after immunization. These data suggest that FasL reverse signaling exerts immunmodulatory functions. Supporting this notion, a model of Ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation revealed an involvement of retrograde FasL-signals in the recruitment of immune effector cells into the lung and in the activation of T cells following exposure of mice to Ovalbumin. Together, our ex vivo and in vivo findings based on endogenous FasL protein levels demonstrate that FasL ICD-mediated reverse signaling is a negative modulator of certain immune responses. It is tempting to speculate that FasL reverse signaling might be a fine-tuning mechanism to prevent autoimmune diseases, a theory which will be tested in adequate mouse models in the future.
Lichtgesteuerte Channelrhodopsine (ChR) haben im letzten Jahrzehnt neue Wege zur Untersuchung neurophysiologischer Zusammenhänge eröffnet. Die ersten grundlegenden Charakterisierungen von Channelrhodpsin-1 und Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR-1 und ChR-2) zeigten bereits die hohe Selektivität dieser Ionenkanäle für Protonen gegenüber monovalenten und divalenten Kationen und veranschaulichten die Dominanz der einwärtsgerichteten gegenüber den auswärtsgerichteten Kationenströmen durch die Kanalpore (Einwärtsgleichrichtung) (Nagel et al., 2002; Nagel et al., 2003). Nach Expression von Channelrhodopsin können erregbare Zellen mit einem Ruhepotential von -60 mV durch Licht depolarisiert und Aktionspotentiale (AP’s) ausgelöst werden (Boyden et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; Nagel et al., 2005b). Aufgrund der Einwärtsgleichrichtung von ChR nehmen die lichtaktivierten Ströme mit zunehmender Depolarisation ab, sodass die vollständige Ausbildung des AP’s nicht gestört wird. Dadurch wird ChR zu einem optimalen optogenetischen Werkzeug. Dennoch ist die Einwärtsgleichrichtung bisher wenig detailliert charakterisiert. Auch die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen sind nicht genau bekannt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte anhand von Patch-Clamp Messungen gezeigt werden, dass zwei Mechanismen die Rektifizierung des Kanalstroms durch ChR-2 hervorrufen: eine Spannungsabhängigkeit der Einzelkanalleitfähigkeit und eine Spannungsabhängigkeit der Offenwahrscheinlichkeit. Die Spannungsabhängigkeit der Einzelkanalleitfähigkeit ist von der Art der geleiteten Ionen abhängig und konnte experimentell über die Unterschiede der stationären IV-Kurve für H+ und Na+ bei symmetrischen Ionenkonzentrationen bewiesen werden. Des Weiteren wurden die Resultate für unterschiedliche Ionenbedingungen anhand eines Ionenbindungsmodells mit einem „3-Barrieren 2-Bindungsstellen“ Profil für die Kanalpore simuliert. Die Spannungsabhängigkeit der Offenwahrscheinlichkeit ist an eine Lichtadaption des ChR-2 Proteins gekoppelt. Diese Lichtadaption konnte mithilfe von repetitiven Messungen, d.h. Strommessungen mit mehrfachen kurzen Lichtblitzen (10 ns), gezeigt werden. Da die Lichtadaption wie auch die Kanalkinetik stark vom pH abhängig sind, ist anzunehmen, dass mechanistisch wichtige De- und Reprotonierungsreaktionen mit diesen Prozessen einhergehen. Ferner konnte über die Untersuchung der elektrophysiologischen Eigenschaften der ChR-2 Mutante E90A eine Region im Protein identifiziert werden, die höchstwahrscheinlich am Protonentransport durch die Kanalpore beteiligt ist. Die Mutante E90A wies eine verringerte Protonenleitfähigkeit und eine natriumabhängige Blockierung der lichtaktivierten Ströme bei niedrigem extrazellulären pH auf. Doppelbelichtungsexperimente mit gelbem oder kurzwelligem blauen Licht ergaben außerdem neue Hinweise auf die Identität einiger Intermediate des Photozyklus. Die vorgestellten Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass die bisher beschriebene „lichtadaptierte“ Form, die als P480 Intermediat bezeichnet wird, eher einem P520 Intermediat entspricht. Außerdem konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine funktionelle Beteiligung des Intermediats P390, in dem die Schiff Base deprotoniert ist, am Photostrom von ChR-2 im Wildtyp-Protein gezeigt werden. Diese Beteiligung ist bisher nur für ChR-2 Mutanten bekannt (Bamann et al., 2010). Neben der Untersuchung der Kanaleigenschaften von ChR-2 wurde in dieser Arbeit auch der Frage nachgegangen, ob an den Photozyklus von ChR-2 eine vektorielle Protonenverschiebung über der Membran gekoppelt ist. Mithilfe der BLM-Technik und Patch-Clamp Messungen an elektrofusionierten HEK-293 Zellen (Zimmermann et al., 2006) konnte gezeigt werden, dass auch ohne elektrochemische Triebkraft lichtaktivierte Ströme (Pumpströme) zu beobachten sind, die einer vektoriellen Protonenverschiebung von 0,2 - 0,4 Ladungen pro Photozyklus entsprechen. Die Doppelbelichtungsexperimente und der vektorielle Protonentransport geben einen Einblick in den Zusammenhang zwischen Photozyklus und den funktionalen Zuständen des Kanals. Die Ergebnisse zeigen das komplexe Geflecht zwischen Spannungsabhängigkeit, der Kinetik und den offenen Zuständen und wurden in einem Modell zusammengefasst. Weiterhin wurde in dieser Arbeit eine stabile Zelllinie für die Expression von ChR-1 etabliert, die eine genauere Charakterisierung dieses Proteins möglich macht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass ChR-1 ebenso wie ChR-2 eine Kationenleitfähigkeit besitzt. Aus zeitaufgelösten Messungen wurde außerdem ermittelt, dass ChR-1 gegenüber ChR-2 eine verkürzte Zykluszeit besitzt. Die verkürzte Zykluszeit von ChR-1, die zu kleineren Gesamtstromamplituden im Vergleich zu ChR-2 führt und die vergleichsweise geringere Expression, v.a. in transienten Expressionssystemen, limitiert dessen neurophysiologische Anwendung. Zusammenfassend stellt die vorliegende Dissertation eine detaillierte biophysikalische Charakterisierung von Channelrhodopsinen dar, die neue Erkenntnisse über die mechanistische Kopplung der Kanalfunktion an den Photozyklus hervorbringt. Zudem kann sie eine Grundlage für die gezielte Suche nach Channelrhodopsin Mutanten bieten, deren Kinetik oder analeigenschaften für die neurophysiologische Anwendung optimiert sind.
The glycine receptor (GlyR) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in spinal cord and brainstem. Heteropentameric GlyRs are clustered and anchored at inhibitory postsynaptic sites by the binding of the large intracellular loop between transmembrane domains 3 and 4 of the GlyRbeta subunit (GlyRbeta-loop) to the cytoplasmic scaffolding protein gephyrin. GlyRs are also cotransported with gephyrin along microtubules in the anterograde and retrograde direction due to the binding of gephyrin to microtubule-associated motor proteins. Additionally, GlyRs undergo lateral diffusion in the plasma membrane from extrasynaptic to synaptic sites and vice versa. Since its discovery, gephyrin has remained for many years the only binding partner interacting directly with the GlyRbeta subunit. In an attempt to elucidate further mechanisms involved in GlyR function and regulation at inhibitory postsynaptic sites, a proteomic screen for putative binding partners to the GlyRbeta loop was performed. Three proteins were identified as putative interactors. In this thesis, the interaction between these putative binding proteins and the GlyRbeta subunit was analyzed and characterized. Binding studies with glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins revealed that all putative binding proteins, Syndapin (Sdp), Vacuolar Protein Sorting 35 (Vps35) and Neurobeachin (Nbea), interact specifically with the GlyRbeta loop. The Sdp family of proteins are F-BAR and SH3 domain containing proteins. Inmmunocytochemical experiments showed that SdpI as well as the isoforms SdpII-S and SdpIIL colocalize with the full-length GlyRbeta subunit in a mammalian cell expression system. In cultured spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of endogenous SdpI with several excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers was demonstrated. Mapping experiments using deletion mutants narrowed the SdpI binding site down to 22 amino acids. Peptide competition experiments confirmed the specificity of the interaction between SdpI and this sequence of the GlyRbeta subunit. Point mutation analysis revealed a SH3-proline rich domain dependent interaction between SdpI and the GlyRbeta subunit, respectively. In addition, binding studies in mammalian cells showed that both splice variants of SdpII as well as SdpI interact with the GlyR scaffolding protein gephyrin. Although the SdpI and gephyrin binding sites do not overlap, protein competition studies revealed that interaction of the E-domain of gephyrin with the GlyRbeta loop interferes with SdpI binding. Since SdpI is a dynamin binding protein involved in vesicle endocytosis and recycling pathways, a possible function of SdpI in the regulation of GlyR synaptic distribution was investigated. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed a SdpI-GlyR association in the vesicle-enriched fraction of rat spinal cord tissue. Immunocytochemical studies of SdpI knock out mice showed that the clustering and distribution of GlyRs in the brain stem is unchanged. However, acute down-regulation of SdpI in rat spinal cord neurons by viral shRNA expression led to a reduction in the number and size of GlyR clusters, an effect that could be rescued upon shRNA-resistant SdpI overexpression. Further immunocytochemical analysis of the localization of gephyrin, the gamma2 subunit of the type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAARgamma2 subunit) and the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT) under SdpI knock-down conditions showed that both the number and average size of the gamma2-subunit containing GABAA receptor clusters were significantly reduced in spinal cord neurons. In contrast to GlyR and GABAARgamma2 immunoreactivity, the number and average size of gephyrin and VIAAT clusters were barely reduced upon SdpI downregulation. These results suggest that SdpI has a role in GlyR trafficking that can be compensated by other syndapin isoforms or other trafficking pathways. Furthermore, SdpI might be required for the clusters of GlyRs and gamma2-subunit containing GABAARs in spinal cord and brainstem. Vps35 is the core protein of the retromer complex, which mediates the endosome to Golgi apparatus retrieval of different types of receptors in mammals and yeast. Here, protein-protein interaction assays revealed for the first time that Vps35 interacts directly with the GlyRbeta loop as well as with gephyrin. The generation of specific Vps35 antibodies allowed to determine the distribution of this protein in the central nervous system. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed the presence of Vps35 in the somata and neurites of spinal cord neurons, suggesting a possible interaction of Vps35 with the GlyR under physiological conditions. Nbea is a BEACH domain containing, neuron-specific protein. Binding studies revealed a direct interaction between two regions of Nbea and the GlyRbeta loop. Immunocytochemical experiments confirmed a somatic and synaptic distribution of Nbea in primary cultures. In spinal cord neurons, a partial colocalization of Nbea with excitatory and inhibitory synaptic markers suggests a possible interaction of Nbea with the GlyR at inhibitory synaptic sites.
The crossbar-H-mode (CH) structure is the first superconducting multicell drift tube cavity for the low and medium energy range operated in the H21 mode. Because of the large energy gain per cavity, which leads to high real estate gradients, it is an excellent candidate for the efficient acceleration in high power proton and ion accelerators with fixed velocity profile. A prototype cavity has been developed and tested successfully with a gradient of 7MV/m. A few new superconducting CH cavities with improved geometries for different high power applications are under development at present. One cavity (f=325 MHz, β=0.16, seven cells) is currently under construction and studied with respect to a possible upgrade option for the GSI UNILAC. Another cavity (f=217 MHz, β=0.059, 15 cells) is designed for a cw operated energy variable heavy ion linac application. Furthermore, the EUROTRANS project (European research program for the transmutation of high level nuclear waste in an accelerator driven system, 600 MeV protons, 352 MHz) is one of many possible applications for this kind of superconducting rf cavity. In this context a layout of the 17 MeV EUROTRANS injector containing four superconducting CH cavities was proposed by the Institute for Applied Physics (IAP) Frankfurt. The status of the cavity development related to the EUROTRANS injector is presented.
Sucrose- and H+-dependent charge movements associated with the gating of sucrose transporter ZmSUT1
(2010)
Background: In contrast to man the majority of higher plants use sucrose as mobile carbohydrate. Accordingly proton-driven sucrose transporters are crucial for cell-to-cell and long-distance distribution within the plant body. Generally very negative plant membrane potentials and the ability to accumulate sucrose quantities of more than 1 M document that plants must have evolved transporters with unique structural and functional features.
Methodology/Principal Findings: To unravel the functional properties of one specific high capacity plasma membrane sucrose transporter in detail, we expressed the sucrose/H+ co-transporter from maize ZmSUT1 in Xenopus oocytes. Application of sucrose in an acidic pH environment elicited inward proton currents. Interestingly the sucrose-dependent H+ transport was associated with a decrease in membrane capacitance (Cm). In addition to sucrose Cm was modulated by the membrane potential and external protons. In order to explore the molecular mechanism underlying these Cm changes, presteady-state currents (Ipre) of ZmSUT1 transport were analyzed. Decay of Ipre could be best fitted by double exponentials. When plotted against the voltage the charge Q, associated to Ipre, was dependent on sucrose and protons. The mathematical derivative of the charge Q versus voltage was well in line with the observed Cm changes. Based on these parameters a turnover rate of 500 molecules sucrose/s was calculated. In contrast to gating currents of voltage dependent-potassium channels the analysis of ZmSUT1-derived presteady-state currents in the absence of sucrose (I = Q/τ) was sufficient to predict ZmSUT1 transport-associated currents.
Conclusions: Taken together our results indicate that in the absence of sucrose, ‘trapped’ protons move back and forth between an outer and an inner site within the transmembrane domains of ZmSUT1. This movement of protons in the electric field of the membrane gives rise to the presteady-state currents and in turn to Cm changes. Upon application of external sucrose, protons can pass the membrane turning presteady-state into transport currents.
Processes occurring in the tropical upper troposphere (UT), the Tropical Transition Layer (TTL), and the lower stratosphere (LS) are of importance for the global climate, for stratospheric dynamics and air chemistry, and for their influence on the global distribution of water vapour, trace gases and aerosols. In this contribution we present aerosol and trace gas (in-situ) measurements from the tropical UT/LS over Southern Brazil, Northern Australia, and West Africa. The instruments were operated on board of the Russian high altitude research aircraft M-55 "Geophysica" and the DLR Falcon-20 during the campaigns TROCCINOX (Araçatuba, Brazil, February 2005), SCOUT-O3 (Darwin, Australia, December 2005), and SCOUT-AMMA (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, August 2006). The data cover submicron particle number densities and volatility from the COndensation PArticle counting System (COPAS), as well as relevant trace gases like N2O, ozone, and CO. We use these trace gas measurements to place the aerosol data into a broader atmospheric context. Also a juxtaposition of the submicron particle data with previous measurements over Costa Rica and other tropical locations between 1999 and 2007 (NASA DC-8 and NASA WB-57F) is provided. The submicron particle number densities, as a function of altitude, were found to be remarkably constant in the tropical UT/LS altitude band for the two decades after 1987. Thus, a parameterisation suitable for models can be extracted from these measurements. Compared to the average levels in the period between 1987 and 2007 a slight increase of particle abundances was found for 2005/2006 at altitudes with potential temperatures, theta, above 430 K. The origins of this increase are unknown except for increases measured during SCOUT-AMMA. Here the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano in the Caribbean caused elevated particle mixing ratios. The vertical profiles from Northern hemispheric mid-latitudes between 1999 and 2006 also are compact enough to derive a parameterisation. The tropical profiles all show a broad maximum of particle mixing ratios (between theta ~ 340 K and 390 K) which extends from below the TTL to above the thermal tropopause. Thus these particles are a "reservoir" for vertical transport into the stratosphere. The ratio of non-volatile particle number density to total particle number density was also measured by COPAS. The vertical profiles of this ratio have a maximum of 50% above 370 K over Australia and West Africa and a pronounced minimum directly below. Without detailed chemical composition measurements a reason for the increase of non-volatile particle fractions cannot yet be given. However, half of the particles from the tropical "reservoir" contain compounds other than sulphuric acid and water. Correlations of the measured aerosol mixing ratios with N2O and ozone exhibit compact relationships for the tropical data from SCOUT-AMMA, TROCCINOX, and SCOUT-O3. Correlations with CO are more scattered probably because of the connection to different pollution source regions. We provide additional data from the long distance transfer flights to the campaign sites in Brazil, Australia, and West-Africa. These were executed during a time window of 17 months within a period of relative volcanic quiescence. Thus the data represent a "snapshot picture" documenting the status of a significant part of the global UT/LS fine aerosol at low concentration levels 15 years after the last major (i.e., the 1991 Mount Pinatubo) eruption. The corresponding latitudinal distributions of the measured particle number densities are presented in this paper to provide data of the UT/LS background aerosol for modelling purposes.