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Antibiotic resistance of pathogenic bacteria is a major worldwide problem. Bacteria can resist antibiotics by active efflux due to multidrug efflux pumps. The focus of this study has been the mycobacterial multidrug transporter TBsmr because it belongs to the small multidrug resistance (SMR) family whose members are a paradigm to study multidrug efflux due to their small size. SMR proteins are typically 11-12 kDa in size and have a four-transmembrane helix topology. They bind cationic, lipophilic antibiotics such as ethidium bromide (EtBr) and TPP+, and transport them across the membrane in exchange for protons. To understand the molecular mechanism of multidrug resistance, we have to gain information about the structure and function of these proteins. The research described in this thesis aimed to deduce details about the topology, transport cycle and key residues of TBsmr using biophysical techniques. Solid-state NMR (ssNMR) can provide detailed insight into structural organization and dynamical properties of these systems. However, a major bottleneck is the preparation of mg amounts of isotope labeled protein. In case of proteoliposomes, the problem is compounded by the presence of lipids which have to fit into the small active volume of the ssNMR rotor. In Chapter 3, an enhanced protein preparation is described which yields large amounts of TBsmr reconstituted in a native lipid environment suitable for further functional and structual studies. The achieved high protein-to-lipid ratios made a further characterization by ssNMR feasible. The transport activity and oligomeric state of the reconstituted protein in different types of lipid was studied as shown in Chapter 4. The exact oligomeric state of native SMR proteins is still uncertain but a number of biochemical and biophysical studies in detergent suggest that the minimal functional unit capable of binding substrate is a dimer. However, binding assays are not ideal since a protein may bind substrate without completing the transport cycle which can only be shown for reconstituted protein in transport assays.By combining functional data of a TPP+ transport assay with information about theoligomeric state of reconstituted TBsmr obtained by freeze-fracture electron microscopy, it could be shown that lipids affect the function and the oligomeric state of the protein, and that the TBsmr dimer is the minimal functional unit necessary for transport. The transport cycle must involve various conformational states of the protein needed for substrate binding, translocation and release. A fluorescent substrate will therefore experience a significant change of environment while being transported, which influences its fluorescence properties. Thus the substrate itself can report intermediate states that form during the transport cycle. In Chapter 5, the existence of such a substrate-transporter complex for the TBsmr and its substrate EtBr could be shown. The pH gradient needed for antiport has been generated by co-reconstituting TBsmr with bacteriorhodopsin. The measurements have shown the formation of a pH-dependant, transient substrate-protein complex between binding and release of EtBr. This state was further characterized by determining the Kd, by inhibiting EtBr transport through titration with non-fluorescent substrate and by fluorescence anisotropy measurements. The findings support a model with a single occluded intermediate state in which the substrate is highly immobile. Liquid-state NMR is a useful tool to monitor protein-ligand interactions by chemical shift mapping and thus identify and characterize important residues in the protein which are involved in substrate binding. In agreement with previous studies (Krueger-Koplin et al., 2004), the detergent LPPG was found to be highly suitable for liquid-state NMR studies of the membrane protein TBsmr and 42% of the residues could be assigned, as reported in Chapter 6. However, no specific interactions with EtBr were found. This observation was confirmed by LILBID mass spectrometry which showed that TBsmr was predominantly in the non-functional monomeric state. Functional protein was prepared in proteoliposomes which can be investigated by solidstate NMR (Chapter 7). Besides the essential E13, the aromatic residues W63, Y40, and Y60 have been shown to be directly involved in drug binding and transport. Different isotope labeling strategies were evaluated to improve the quality of the NMR spectra to identify and characterize these key residues. In a single tryptophan mutant of reconstituted TBsmr W30A, the binding of ethidium bromide could be detected by 13C solid-state NMR. The measurements have revealed two populations of the conserved W63 residue with distinct backbone structures in the presence of substrate. There is a controversy about the parallel or anti-parallel arrangement of the protomers in the EmrE dimer (Schuldiner, 2007) but this structural asymmetry is consistent with both a parallel and anti-parallel topology.
The respiratory chain is composed of protein complexes residing in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes or in the cytoplasmic membrane of prokaryotes. This cellular energy converter transforms a redox potential stored in low potential substrates into an electrochemical potential across the respective membrane. Typical respiratory chains contain the complexes I, II, III and IV named according to their sequence in the respiratory chain reaction. Electrons of low potential substrates enter at complex I or II and are passed via complex III to complex IV where they are transferred to oxygen. The transport of electrons between the complexes is mediated by small electron shuttles like quinol or cytochrome c. Two different models describe their exchange either by (1) random collision of freely diffusible electron shuttles and membrane protein complexes or (2) arrangement of the complexes in supercomplexes enabling direct channeling of electron shuttles. In the Gram positive bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum, the complex III to complex IV electron shuttle cytochrome c is not diffusible but a covalently bound part of the diheme cytochrome subunit QcrC of complex III. Therefore, the complexes III and IV have to form a supercomplex for electron transduction. The aim of this thesis was to purify and characterise this obligatory supercomplex III/IV of C. glutamicum. To gain sufficient biomass of C. glutamicum as starting material for purification, a phosphate buffered minimal medium was developed that enabled yield of total 120 g wet cell mass (38 g dry mass) in 12 L (6×2 L) shaking cultures. The determined conversion factor of glucose into biomass was 0.46 g/g indicating an intact respiratory chain. The yield was increased by bioreactor cultivation to ~690 g wet cell mass (~220 g dry mass) in ~10 L culture volume. A previously described homologous expression system was applied that produces the complex IV subunit CtaD with a fused Strep-tag II to facilitate purification. Affinity purifications using the Strep-tag II affinity to Strep-Tactin resin yielded a mixture of complexes and supercomplexes. Two supercomplex III/IV versions named supercomplex A and B and free complex IV were identified in this mixture by size exclusion chromatography, redox difference spectroscopy and two dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis including blue native polyacrylamide electrophoresis. The here presented downscaled blue native polyacrylamide electrophoresis method with analysis times of ~1 h enabled efficient screening of factors influencing the stability of supercomplex III/IV. The screening resulted that the integrity of supercomplex III/IV is preserved by using neutral detergents at minimal detergent to protein ratios for solubilisation and low detergent concentrations for purification and storage slightly above the required critical micellar concentration. Furthermore, pH <=7.5 is required for stability of supercomplex III/IV. Large biomass yields enabled upscaling of supercomplex III/IV affinity purification. Application of the identified stability conditions resulted in affinity purified samples free of supercomplex B. The major component supercomplex A was efficiently separated from residual free complex IV by preparative size exclusion chromatography. Concentration of purified supercomplex A by ultracentrifugation resulted in integrity of the supercomplex for several days at 4 °C. Purified supercomplex A contains ten different previously described subunits. The heme content of supercomplex A relative to the protein mass is heme A: 6.0 μmol/g, heme B: 6.5 μmol/g, and heme C: 5.8 μmol/g determined by redox difference spectroscopy and biochemical protein quantification. This indicates an equimolar ratio of complex III and complex IV in supercomplex A. Supercomplex A has quinol oxidase activity that is inhibited by stigmatellin or sodium azide. The turnover number of transferred electrons per complex III monomer is 148 s−1 at 25° C. The homogeneity and stability of the prepared supercomplex A enabled the growth of threedimensional crystals of up to 0.1 mm in length. Their composition of supercomplex A was verified by redox difference spectroscopy of intact crystals and blue native polyacrylamide electrophoresis of dissolved crystals. The crystals diffracted X-rays corresponding to a resolution of ~10 Å. Electron microscopy of negative stained samples revealed the uniform shape of purified supercomplex A particles with dimensions of 22 × 9 nm in the view plane. Combined heme quantification, size determination, determined activity, symmetry considerations, and particle shape indicate that supercomplex A has a central dimer of complex III and two monomers of complex IV on opposite sides. This conformation is functionally reasonable because it provides each complex III monomer with one complex IV monomer as electron acceptor. Therefore, the stoichiometry of supercomplex A is most likely III2IV2. The sensitivity of supercomplex A to detergents indicated a role of phospholipids in its stability. Therefore, a method for phospholipid identification and quantification was developed that is suitable for detergent solubilised crude and purified membrane protein samples. The analysis combines separation of phospholipid classes according to their head group by normal phase high performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection. Calibration with external standard allows quantification of phospholipid amount in the range of 0.25-12 μg. The method is verified by analysing the phospholipid content of the well characterised complex III of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The reduction of its phospholipid content during its purification steps is monitored. The complex III sample purified to crystallisation quality contains the phospholipid content that was also observed in previously reported structures determined by X-ray crystallography. Purified stable supercomplex A from C. glutamicum revealed a large content of bound phospholipids. The main differences between intact supercomplex A and a mixture of potentially disintegrated smaller complexes is that intact supercomplex A has a doubled phosphatidic acid content and an increased phosphatidyl glycerol content. The importance of the small anionic phosphatidic acid for mediation of contacts between complexes in a supercomplex is discussed. The total phospholipid content of stable supercomplex A is sufficient for a complete belt surrounding the supercomplex in the membrane plane. This indicates that also all essential internal phospholipid binding positions are occupied and potentially stabilise supercomplex A.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Entwicklung von Nanopartikeln als Trägersysteme für nukleosidische Arzneistoffe. Ihr Einsatz verhindert z.B. die Degradierung der Nukleoside und verbessert ihre Aufnahme in Zellen. Die Partikel wurden aus humanem Serumalbumin (HSA) durch Desolvatation hergestellt und mittels Glutaraldehyd stabilisiert. Durch die Kopplung von Trastuzumab an die Partikeloberfläche können HER2-überexprimierende Brustkrebszellen spezifisch erreicht werden. Bindet der Antikörper an den HER2-Rezeptor, kommt es zu einer Internalisierung des Ligand-ezeptorkomplexes und an den Liganden gebundene Partikel werden zusammen mit dem Komplex in die Zellen aufgenommen. Die Kopplung von Trastuzumab an die Oberfläche der HSA-Nanopartikel über eine Thioetherbindung war sehr effizient und stabil.Die Stabilität von Partikelsystemen über lange Lagerzeiten kann durch Gefriertrocknung erhöht werden. Zur Gefriertrocknung trastuzumabmodifizierter Partikel wurden Trehalose, Sucrose und Mannitol in Konzentrationen bis 5% als Hilfsstoffe eingesetzt. Trehalose und Sucrose waren bereits in einer Konzentration von 3% in der Lage, die physikochemischen Eigenschaften der Partikel direkt nach der Gefriertrocknung zu erhalten, die Partikel waren aber nicht lagerfähig. Mit Mannitol war dies direkt nach der Gefriertrocknung auch bei einer Konzentration von 5% nicht in gleichem Umfang möglich, die Partikel konnten aber am besten gelagert werden. Als nukleosidische Wirkstoffe wurden In die Matrix von HSA-Nanopartikeln unter anderem Antisenseoligonukleotide (ASOs) eingebettet. Das inkorporierte ASO P12 gehört zur Gruppe der Phosphorothioate (PTOs) und bewirkt eine Reduktion der Polo-like Kinase 1 (Plk1) auf mRNA- und Proteinebene. Plk1 ist wesentlich an der Zellteilung beteiligt und wird in vielen Tumoren überexprimiert, eine Hemmung von Plk1 führt zur Apoptose der Zellen. Damit das PTO eine Wirkung zeigen kann, muss es intrazellulär aus den Partikeln freigesetzt werden. Deshalb wurden die Partikel enzymatisch abgebaut. Die Wiederfindung der PTOs aus der abgebauten Partikelmatrix betrug maximal 30% und war von der Menge des zur Partikelstabilisierung verwendeten Glutaraldehyds abhängig. Je mehr Glutaraldehyd verwendet worden war, desto schlechter war die Wiederfindung. Eventuell werden die PTOs durch Glutaraldehyd inaktiviert, indem es zu einer Quervernetzung untereinander oder mit Albuminmolekülen kommt. Dennoch konnte in Brustkrebszelllinien eine biologische Wirkung der PTO-beladenen Partikelsysteme gezeigt werden. P12-beladene, trastuzumabmodifizierte Partikel wurden zeitabhängig und rezeptorvermittelt HER2-überexprimierende Zellen aufgenommen. Die Partikel reduzierten die Menge der Plk1-mRNA signifikant. Dies ging mit einer ebenfalls signifikanten Reduktion der Plk1-Proteinmenge einher. Die Folge der Plk1-Reduktion war eine Aktivierung der Caspasen 3 und 7, die die Induktion der Apopotose zeigte. Plk1 kann nicht nur durch PTOs, sondern auch durch Plasmid-DNA, die small hairpin RNA (shRNA) gegen Plk1 exprimiert, gehemmt werden. Die Plasmide blieben bei der Einbettung in die Partikelmatrix intakt, allerdings trat eine Umformung von der supercoiled in die lineare und zirkuläre Form auf. Auch plasmidbeladene, trastuzumabmodifizierte Partikel wurden zeitabhängig und rezeptorvermittelt in HER2-überexprimierende Zelllinien aufgenommen und führten dort zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der Plk1-Proteinmenge. Als weiterer nukleosidischer Wirkstoff wurde noch eine siRNA gegen Plk1 in die HSA-Partikel inkorporiert. Mit siRNA-beladenen Nanopartikeln konnte ebenfalls eine signifikante Reduktion der Plk1-mRNA- und –Proteinmenge beobachtet werden. Partikel aus HSA können nicht nur durch den Einsatz von Glutaraldehyd stabilisiert werden, eine thermische Quervernetzung der Partikelmatrix ist ebenfalls möglich. Die besten physikochemischen Eigenschaften PTO-beladener Partikel wurden bei einer Quervernetzungstemperatur von 105°C über 10 min erzielt. Wurden diese Partikel enzymatisch abgebaut und das PTO aus der Partikelmatrix bestimmt, so konnten bis zu 80% des eingebetteten PTOs intakt detektiert werden. Allerdings waren die Partikel weniger stabil als chemisch quervernetzte Partikel. Bei einer Einlagerung über 6 Wochen stieg der Partikeldurchmesser an, 25% des eingebetteten P12s wurden aus der Matrix freigesetzt und bis zu 20% des Trastuzumabs wurden von der Oberfläche abgelöst. Dennoch war die Reduktion der Plk1-mRNA- und –Proteinmenge in der Zellkultur signifikant und mit der von chemisch stabilisierten Partikeln vergleichbar. Trastuzumabmodifizierte HSA-Nanopartikel stellen somit ein geeignetes Trägersystem für nukleosidische Arzneistoffe dar und führen zu einer spezifischen Wirkung in HER2-überexprimierenden Brustkrebszellen.
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) redistributes pulmonary blood flow from areas of low oxygen partial pressure to areas of normal or relativity high oxygen availability, thus optimising the matching of perfusion to ventilation and preventing arterial hypoxemia. Generalised alveolar hypoxia results in a sustained increase in pulmonary artery pressure which in turn leads to structural changes in the walls of the pulmonary vasculature (pulmonary vascular remodelling). Recent findings have indicated a role for cytochrome P450 (CYP) epoxygenase-derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) in hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction. Given that the intracellular concentration of EETs is determined by the soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH), which metabolises EETs to their less active dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acids (DHETs), we assessed the influence of the sEH and EETs on pulmonary artery pressure, acute and chronic HPV, and pulmonary vascular remodelling in the mouse lung. In isolated lungs from wild-type mice, acute HPV was significantly increased by sEH inhibition, an effect abolished by pre-treatment with CYP epoxygenase inhibitors and the EET antagonist 14,15-EEZE. The acute hypoxia-induced vasoconstriction and EET production were greater in lungs from sEH-/- mice than from wild-type mice and sEH inhibition had no further effect on HPV in lungs from the former animals, while MSPPOH (CYP epoxygenase inhibitor) and 14,15-EEZE decreased the response. Exogenous application of 11,12-EET increased pulmonary artery pressure in a concentration-dependent manner and enhanced acute HPV in wild-type lungs, while 14,15-EET and 11,12-DHET were without significant effect on pulmonary artery pressure. 5-HT2A receptor antagonism or Rho kinase inhibition shifted the EET concentration-response curve to the right and abrogated the EET- and sEH inhibition-induced potentiation of acute hypoxic vasoconstriction. In lungs from wild-type and sEH-/- mice, hypoxic preconditioning (hypoxic ventilation for 10 minutes) enhanced the 5-HT response. 1-Adamantyl-3-cyclohexylurea (ACU), a sEH inhibitor, further amplified the hypoxia-induced 5-HT-hypersensitivity in wild-type mice. However, after hypoxic preconditioning, the sEH-/- lungs displayed a striking leftward shift in the 5-HT response. 11,12-EET can activate TRPC6 channels in endothelial cells by eliciting its translocation to the plasma membrane, more specifically to membrane domains enriched with the caveolae marker caveolin-1. This effect was also observed in rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells overexpressing the channel. Exposure of the latter cells to acute hypoxia also stimulated the intracellular translocation of TRPC6 to caveolae, an effect that was sensitive to the EET antagonist. The EET-induced translocation of TRPC6 channels was prevented by a 5-HT2A receptor antagonist but not by a Rho kinase inhibitor. Moreover, while acute hypoxia and 11,12-EET increased pulmonary pressure in lungs from TRPC6+/- mice, lungs from TRPC6-/- mice did not respond to either stimuli. These results indicate that the sEH and CYP-derived EETs are involved in acute HPV and that EET-induced pulmonary contraction under normoxic and hypoxic conditions involves a TRPC6 channel, a 5-HT2A receptor-dependent pathway and Rho kinase activation. In the second part of the study the role of the sEH in the development of pulmonary hypertension and vascular remodelling induced in mice by exposure to hypoxia (10% O2) for 21 days was analysed. In wild-type mice, chronic hypoxia decreased the pulmonary expression/activity of the sEH, induced right heart hypertrophy and erythropoiesis, and increased the number of partially and fully muscularised pulmonary resistance arteries (by 3-fold). Moreover, in HEK 293 cells, hypoxia (1% O2 up to 24 h) decreased sEH promoter activity by 50%. In isolated lungs, pre-exposure to chronic hypoxia significantly increased baseline perfusion pressures and potentiated the acute HPV. While an sEH inhibitor, ACU, potentiated acute HPV in lungs from mice maintained in normoxic conditions, it had no effect on HPV in lungs from mice exposed to hypoxia. The EET antagonist, 14,15-EEZE, abolished the sEH inhibitor-dependent increase in acute HPV in normoxic lungs and decreased HPV in chronic hypoxic lungs. Hypoxia-induced right heart hypertrophy and erythropoiesis were more pronounced in sEH-/- than in wild-type mice. Under normoxic and hypoxic conditions the muscularisation of resistance pulmonary arteries was greater in lungs from sEH-/- mice than in lungs from wild-type mice. sEH-/- mice also displayed an enhanced acute HPV, compared to that observed in wild-type mice and chronic exposure to hypoxia did not further potentiate acute HPV. However, in the presence of 14,15-EEZE responses returned to levels observed in normoxic lungs from wild-type animals. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry demonstrated an extensive expression of the sEH in the medial wall of pulmonary arteries from human donor lungs. Whereas sEH expression was not detectable in samples from pulmonary hypertension patients, indicating that the sEH is involved in hypoxia-induced pulmonary vascular remodelling and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Taken together, the results presented in this thesis indicate that the expression/activity of the sEH is an important determinant of the magnitude of acute and chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction and pulmonary vascular remodelling by inactivating vasoconstrictor CYP-derived EETs. As sEH inhibitors are currently being developed for the treatment of human systemic hypertension, it should be noted that these compounds may even promote the development of pulmonary hypertension.
RNA interference (RNAi) is triggered by recognition of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and elicits the silencing of gene(s) complementary to the dsRNA sequence. RNAi is thought to have emerged as a way of safeguarding the genome against mobile genetic elements and viral infection, thus maintaining genomic integrity. dsRNA is first processed into small interfering RNAs (siRNA) by the enzyme Dicer. siRNAs are ~21 to 25 -nt long, and contain a signature 5’ phosphate group and a two nucleotide long 3’ overhang (Bernstein et al., 2001). The siRNA is then loaded into the RNA-induced si-lencing complex (RISC), of which Argonaute is the primary catalytic component (Liu et al., 2004). Energetic asymmetry of the siRNA ends allows for its directional loading into RISC (Khvorova et al., 2003; Schwarz et al., 2003). Argonaute cleaves the passen-ger strand of the siRNA, leaving the guide strand of the siRNA bound to RISC (Gregory et al., 2005; Matranga et al., 2005; Rand et al., 2005). This single-stranded guide strand siRNA bound to Argonaute is able to recognize target mRNA in a sequence-specific manner, and cleaves the mRNA. Argonaute 2 in complex with single-stranded siRNA is sufficient for mRNA recognition and cleavage, thus forming a minimal RISC (Rivas et al., 2005). miRNAs, endogenously expressed small RNA genes which typically contain mismatches and non-Watson-Crick base pairing, are processed by this general pathway, although typically modulate gene expression by translational repression as opposed to cleavage of their target mRNA. The number of Argonaute genes is highly variable between species, ranging from one in S. pombe to twenty-seven in C. elegans. Earlier crystal structures of Argonaute apoen-zymes show the architecture of Argonaute to be a multidomain protein composed of N terminal, PAZ, MID, and PIWI domains (Song et al., 2004; Yuan et al., 2005). These multi-domain proteins are present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. The role of Argonaute proteins in prokaryotes is still unknown, but based similarity to eu-karyotic Argonautes, they may also be involved in nucleic acid-directed regulatory pathways. These proteins have served as excellent models for learning about the struc-ture and function of this family of proteins. RNAi has found a widespread application for the simple yet effective knockdown of genes of interest. The catalytic cycle of RISC requires the binding of a number of different nucleotide structures to Argonaute, and we expect Argonaute to undergo a number of conforma-tional changes during the cycle of mRNA recognition by RISC (Filipowicz, 2005; Tom-ari and Zamore, 2005). Nevertheless, it remains unclear how the multi-domain ar-rangement of Argonaute recognizes and distinguishes between single-stranded and dou-ble-stranded oligonucleotides, which correspond to the Dicer-processed siRNA product, guide strand siRNA, and the guide strand / mRNA duplex. The Argonaute protein from Aquifex aeolicus was cloned, expressed, crystallized and solved by molecular replacement. Relative to earlier Argonaute structures, a 24° reorientation of the PAZ domain in this structure opens a basic cleft between the N-terminal and PAZ domains, exposing the guide strand binding pocket of PAZ. A 5.5-ns molecular dynamics simulation of Argonaute showed a strong tendency of the PAZ and N-terminal domains to be mobile. Binding of single-stranded DNA to Argonaute was monitored by total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy (TIRFS). The experi-ments showed biphasic kinetics indicative of large conformational changes, and re-vealed a hotspot of binding energy corresponding to the first 9 nucleotides, the so-called “seed region” most crucial for sequence-specific target recognition. As RNAi may have evolved as a way of safeguarding the genome viral infection, it is not surprising that viruses have evolved different strategies to suppress the host RNAi response in the form of viral suppressor protein. (Hock and Meister, 2008; Lecellier and Voinnet, 2004; Rashid et al., 2007; Song et al., 2004; Vastenhouw and Plasterk, 2004). These viral suppressors are widespread, having been identified in a number of different viral families. Not surprisingly, they generally share little sequence homology with one another, although they appear to exist as oligomers built upon a ~ 100-200 amino acid protomer. Tomato aspermy virus, a member of the Cucumoviruses, encodes for protein 2B (TAV 2B, 95 a.a., ~11.3 kDa) that acts as an RNAi suppressor. Intriguingly, a similar genomic arrangement is seen in RNAi suppressors in the Nodaviruses, a family of viruses that can infect both plants and animals, such as Flock house virus b2 (FHV b2). The 2B and b2 proteins are both derived from a frameshifted ORF within the RNA polymerase gene (Chao et al., 2005). In spite of this genomic similarity, the 2B and b2 proteins share little sequence identity, and it is not well understood how the Cucumovirus 2B proteins suppress RNAi. To address how TAV 2B suppresses RNAi, the oligonucleotide-binding properties of TAV 2B were studied. TAV 2B shows a preference for double-stranded RNA oligonucleotides corresponding to siRNAs and miRNAs, and also binds to single-stranded RNA oligonucleotides. A stretch of positively charged residues between amino acids 20-30 are critical for RNA binding. Binding to RNA oligomerizes and induces a conformational change in TAV 2B into a primarily helical structure. These studies sug-gest that suppression of RNAi by TAV 2B may occur by targeting different stages of the RNAi pathway. TAV 2B falls under the category of more general RNAi suppres-sors, with potentially multiple targets for suppression.