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Defects in podocyte signaling are the basis of many inherited glomerular diseases leading to glomerulosclerosis. CD2-associated protein (CD2AP) is highly expressed in podocytes and is considered to play an important role in the maintenance of the glomerular slit diaphragm. Mice deficient for CD2AP (CD2AP(-/-)) appear normal at birth but develop a rapid onset nephrotic syndrome at 3 weeks of age. We demonstrate that impaired intracellular signaling with subsequent podocyte damage is the reason for this delayed podocyte injury in CD2AP(-/-) mice. We document that CD2AP deficiency in podocytes leads to diminished signal initiation and termination of signaling pathways mediated by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). In addition, we demonstrate that CIN85, a paralog of CD2AP, is involved in termination of RTK signaling in podocytes. CIN85 protein expression is increased in CD2AP(-/-) podocytes in vitro. Stimulation of CD2AP(-/-) podocytes with various growth factors, including insulin-like growth factor 1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and fibroblast growth factor, resulted in a significantly decreased phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT and ERK signaling response. Moreover, increased CIN85 protein is detectable in podocytes in diseased CD2AP(-/-) mice, leading to decreased base-line activation of ERK and decreased phosphorylation after growth factor stimulation in vivo. Because repression of CIN85 protein leads to a restored RTK signaling response, our results support an important role of CD2AP/CIN85 protein balance in the normal signaling response of podocytes.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors and possess a signature motif of seven transmembrane helices. The endothelin B (ETB) receptor is a member of rhodopsin like GPCR family. It plays an important role in vasodilation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of G-protein coupled receptors in general would significantly add to our understanding of their molecular mechanisms and would be useful in the search for new specific drugs. However, three-dimensional structural analysis will require milligram quantities of pure and homogeneous protein. This dissertation is a study of the production, biochemical characterization and preliminary structural studies of the human ETB G-protein coupled receptor. The present work aimed at elucidating the structure and mechanistic details of function of the receptor by using a combination of X-ray crystallographic and NMR methods for collecting structural data. To obtain homogenous and monodisperse receptor protein preparation for structural and functional studies, we implemented the baculovirus expression system for the production of ETB receptor for the present work. The two step affinity purification ensured capture of full-length receptor. Silver stained SDS-PAGE of the purified receptor-ligand complex indicated greater than 90% protein purity. Based on previous reports, we used the high affinity ligand (endothelin -1) binding to the receptor for co-crystallization of receptor-ligand complex by locking the receptor in the activated conformation. As a prerequisite for 3D crystallization trials, the stability of the detergent solubilized receptor-ligand complex was assessed with respect to pH, temperature and time. Receptor-ligand complex did not show any degradation and aggregation over 6 days at 4°C and 18°C. Interestingly, change of pH suggested that receptor-ligand complex is unstable at lower pH due to possible charge induced conformational changes. In our work, we introduced the idea of using fluorophore labeled ligand for simple visual recognition of the receptor-ligand complex during purification and crystallization. On the other hand, we alternatively used biotinylated endothelin-1 to produce an adequate amount of ligand bound receptor complex, thus ensuring homogeneity of the purified complex for use in structural studies. Thus far, preliminary crystals have been obtained for both the unlabelled ET-1 and fluorophore labeled ET-1 complexed with ETB receptor. Moreover, we performed the systematic investigation of the protein/peptide binding partner for the receptor-ligand complex with the chief aims of stabilizing structure and increasing the possibilities of 3D-crystal contacts. Thus subsequent to formation of receptor-ligand complex, the additional in vitro formation of a ternary arrestin-receptor-ligand complex was also attempted for use in structural studies. We successfully demonstrated that arrestin mutant (R169E) forms a tight complex with ETB receptor regardless of its phosphorylation state. A second approach to get insight into the ETB receptor ligand binding site relied on the use of spin isotope labeled ET-1 ligand peptide by employing solid state MAS NMR method. Preliminary data provided compelling evidence that the C-terminal region of the peptide is immobilized in an ordered environment and presumably bound to the receptor. This indicates that the approach is feasible, although there are difficulties in sample preparation for further spectral measurements and data collection which are currently being discussed in ongoing investigations. At this point of our research work, we initiated a collaborative effort to obtain high yields of pure, active receptor without post translational modifications, from an E. coli cell lysate based in vitro expression system. We successfully optimized the production of homogenous and monodisperse endothelin B receptor in mg amounts. Thus this could potentially provide an alternative source of high quality receptor production in large quantities for immediate crystallization trials. Thus we hope that the results from these investigations can be applied in a more general sense to the production and crystallization of other G protein-coupled receptors.
Molecular mechanism of intracellular signal transduction by the angiotensin-converting enzyme
(2007)
The angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is an important component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and is crucially involved in the homeostasis of fluid and electrolyte balance and thus in the regulation of blood pressure. The zinc metallopeptidase is involved in the generation of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor and in the degradation of bradykinin, a potent vasodilator. It is worth noting that ACE more readily hydrolyzes bradykinin than it does angiotensin I thus culminating in the net physiological effect of the production of a vasoconstrictor and the decrease in the availability of a vasodilator. ACE inhibitors have become one of the most successful therapeutic approaches as a first line of therapy in hypertension, and are also widely used in treating heart failure, myocardial infarction, stroke, coronary artery disease and impaired left ventricular function. However, one unexpected clinically relevant finding related to ACE inhibitors is their ability to delay the onset of type II diabetes that was revealed by various large clinical trials. However, the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects of ACE inhibitor therapy are currently unclear and cannot be explained by the prevention of angiotensin II formation or the attenuated degradation of bradykinin. Thus the potential beneficial effects attributed to ACE inhibitors may occur independent of reductions in blood pressure paving way for new and/or unknown mechanism. Our group has recently redefined ACE as a signal transduction molecule which upon binding to ACE inhibitor turns on a signalling cascade leading to phosphorylation of Ser1270 by CK2, activation of JNK and changes in gene expression in endothelial cells. However the mechanism by which ACE inhibitor initiates the signalling cascade was not clear. It was hypothesized that ACE, which is anchored to the membrane with a single transmembrane domain should dimerize prior to initiating further downstream signalling events in endothelial cells. Therefore, we sought to explore whether or not ACE forms dimers in endothelial cells and whether ACE dimerization is essential for the initiation of ACE signalling in endothelial cells. Using native gel electrophoresis, we found that ACE forms dimers in endothelial cells and that there is an increase in the dimer formation upon treatment of endothelial cells with ACE inhibitors. ACE homodimerization was also demonstrated using the split-ubiquitin system and chemical cross-linking experiments. ACE dimers are also formed in endothelial cells overexpressing the non-phosphorylatable ACE, wherein ACE signalling was abolished indicating that dimerization process is not influenced by the phosphorylation of the serine residue residing in the cytoplasmic tail. Monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and mannitol did not have any influence on ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization. Making use of different monoclonal antibodies directed to the epitopes of N-domain which harbours carbohydrate recognizing domain, also did not affect dimerization. However, inactivation of the C-domain active site by introducing mutation of the key histidine residues in HEMGH consensus sequences, which complexes the zinc ions, abolished enzyme dimerization both in the basal state and in response to ramiprilat. Mutation of the C-domain also resulted in the loss of ACE inhibitor-induced ACE signalling, that is we failed to observe ramiprilat-induced increase in the phosphorylation of the Ser1270 and the subsequent JNK activation. ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization precedes the phosphorylation of Ser1270 and activation of JNK. Thus the ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization via the C-domain of ACE represents the initial step in the ACE signalling pathway which involves the activation of JNK/c-Jun pathway and leading to the changes in the gene expression in endothelial cells. Our group previously identified ACE itself as well as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as two “ACE signalling-regulated” genes. To screen for additional genes regulated in a similar manner we used DNA microarray technology, to assess ramiprilat-induced changes in the endothelial cell gene expression. 21 genes were identified to be differentially regulated of which, 7 were upregulated and 14 were downregulated by ramiprilat. However, when screened at the protein level, we found no significant differences between the untreated control cells and those treated with ramiprilat. As several other cells and tissues possess a fully functional RAS we screened plasma samples from healthy volunteers as well as from patients with coronary artery disease for the proteins identified in the microarray. We observed that the cellular retinal binding protein-1 (CRBP-1) was detectable at low levels in plasma from patients and that ramipril markedly increased serum levels of this protein. Endothelial cells overexpressing CRBP-1 demonstrated increased RXRE and PPRE activity when stimulated with 9-cis retinoic acid and rosiglitazone respectively suggesting that CRBP-1 might affect gene expression via heterodimerization of PPAR elements with RXR elements by virtue of its function as a transport protein of retinoic acid. Studies aimed at determining the consequences of elevated CRBP-1 expression on endothelial cell homeostasis are ongoing. Although the RAS has been described in many other tissues apart from endothelial cells, ACE signalling has not yet been addressed in tissues such as monocytes/macrophages, which have an increased ACE expression in an atherosclerotic setting. We observed that upon stimulation of cultured ACE expressing monocytes with ramiprilat, JNK is activated suggesting the occurrence of ACE signalling in human monocytes. It is worth noting that ACE inhibitors delay the onset of type II diabetes in spite of moderate decrease in blood pressure. To further elucidate the mechanism underlying this effect, we found that ACE inhibitors increase the PPARgamma levels in the nuclear extracts of ACE expressing monocytes which were also reproduced in human endothelial cells overexpressing human somatic ACE. However, ramiprilat did not have any direct effect on the activity of a luciferase-coupled promoter containing several copies of the PPRE in human endothelial cells. These results contrasted with the actions of the PPARgamma agonist suggesting that ramiprilat enhances PPARgamma levels through an indirect mechanism. We next hypothesized that ramiprilat might increase the levels of 15-deoxy-D12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15dPGJ2) which is a natural ligand for PPARgamma via COX enzymes in monocytes. We observed that ramiprilat was able to decrease the diminution of COX-2 levels upto 48 hours of treatment but the levels of 15dPGJ2 were too low to be detected by ELISA. However ramiprilat enhanced the plasma levels of adiponectin, a downstream target of PPARgamma, which is a anti-atherogenic and anti-inflammatory adipokine, in patients with coronary artery disease. Though adiponectin is a PPARgamma-regulated gene, the observed increase in adiponectin might be attributed to the increase in RXR rather than via PPARgamma. Taken together, the results of this investigation have revealed that ACE inhibitors initiate ACE signalling by eliciting the dimerization of the enzyme, more specifically via its C-domain active centers. The ACE signalling cascade when activated leads to the enhanced expression of ACE, COX-2 and CRBP-1 which in turn favours the heterodimerization of PPARgamma with RXR and thus results in the increased expression of “PPARgamma regulated” genes such as adiponectin. The latter results provide a molecular basis for the observation that ACE inhibitors can delay the onset of type 2 diabetes in as much as it was possible to link ramipril with CRBP-1, RXR activity and the expression of adiponectin, an adipokine associated with improved insulin sensitivity. Further work is however required to elucidate the consequences of ACE inhibitors in monocytes and adipocytes as well as in intact animals.
Compared to all other organisms with 1 to 3 heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) or Hsf-related factors, plants have extraordinarily large Hsf families with more than 20 Hsfs. Plant Hsfs are classified into three classes according to their oligomerization domains which is built of hydrophobic heptad repeats (HR) in two parts, HR-A and HR-B. Both parts may be immediately adjacent (class B), or they are separated by insertion of 21 (class A) and 7 amino acid residues (class C). In plant Hsf family, detailed investigations are so far limited to Hsfs A1a, A2, A3, A4d, A9, and B1. They strongly indicate functional diversification to be the main reason for the coexistence of multiple Hsfs. As an example the functional triad of HsfA1a, HsfA2, and HsfB1 is essential for all three phases of the hs response, (i) the triggering of the response by HsfA1a as master regulator, (ii) the maintenance and high efficiency of hs gene transcription by cooperation of HsfA1a with Hsfs A2 and B1, and finally, (iii) the restoration of house-keeping gene transcription during the recovery phase mediated by HsfB1 in cooperation with house-keeping transcription factors. The results presented in this thesis for Hsfs A4 and A5 open completely different aspects of functional diversification and cooperation of Hsfs. HsfA4 and HsfA5 homooligomerize and bind to corresponding HSE motifs. But in contrast to the highly active HsfA4, HsfA5 is completely inactive as transcriptional activator. Yeast two hybrid and GST pull-down techniques showed that both Hsfs have strong tendency for heterooligomerization. Using fluorescence microscopy the HsfA4/A5 heterooligomers were found to localize in the nucleus. These complexes are transcriptionally inactive due to the impairment of DNA binding. The repressor function of HsfA5 requires only its OD and no additional factors, e.g. a putative co-repressor recruited by the C-terminal domain, are involved. Evidently, the repressor effect mainly results from the interference with the oligomeric state of HsfA4b, which is essential for efficient DNA binding and activator functions. EST database search revealed that plants have a single HsfA5 and usually two A4-type Hsfs. Using bioinformatics tools, Hsfs A4 and A5 were found to be phylogenetically closely related and clearly distinct from the other members of the Hsf family. On the basis of RT-PCR and Microarray data the representatives of the A4/A5 group are well expressed in different plant tissues albeit at very different levels which change with the developmental stages and stress conditions In rice and Arabidopsis, HsfA4 functions as an anti-apoptotic factor for stress induced oxidative damages. Based on my results, I hypothesize that HsfA5 functions as a novel type of selective repressor, regulating the function of A4-type Hsfs in plants. Considering the high sequence conservation with in plant Hsf family, it is tempting to speculate that this role of Hsf4/A5 pair is a fundamental feature of the Hsf system in plants.
cGMP- and cAMP-dependent protein kinases (cGK and cAK) mediate the inhibitory effects of endothelium-derived messenger molecules nitric oxide and prostacyclin on platelets. To understand the mechanisms involved in platelet inhibition we searched for new substrates of cGK and cAK. We identified Rap1GAP2, the only GTPase-activating protein of Rap1 in platelets. Rap1 is a guanine-nucleotide binding protein that controls integrin activity, platelet adhesion and aggregation. Rap1GAP2 is required to turn over Rap1-GTP to Rap1-GDP resulting in the inactivation of integrins and reduced cellular adhesion. Using phospho-specific antibodies we demonstrate phosphorylation of endogenous Rap1GAP2 on serine 7 by cGK and cAK in intact platelets. Yeast-two-hybrid screening revealed an interaction of the phosphoserine/-threonine binding adapter protein 14-3-3 with Rap1GAP2, and we mapped the 14-3-3 binding site to the N-terminus of Rap1GAP2 close to the cGK/cAK phosphorylation site. We could show that 14-3-3 binding to Rap1GAP2 requires phosphorylation of serine 9. Platelet activation by ADP and thrombin treatment induces Rap1GAP2 serine 9 phosphorylation and enhances the attachment of 14-3-3 to Rap1GAP2. In contrast, phosphorylation of serine 7 by cGK/cAK leads to the detachment of 14-3-3. Furthermore, Rap1GAP2 serine 7 phosphorylation correlates with the inhibition of Rap1-GTP formation by cGMP and cAMP in platelets. Cell adhesion experiments provide additional evidence that Rap1GAP2 is activated by the detachment of 14-3-3. Point mutants of Rap1GAP2 deficient in 14-3-3 binding inhibit Rap1-mediated cell adhesion significantly stronger than a Rap1GAP2 mutant that binds 14-3-3 constitutively. Our findings define a novel regulatory mechanism that might contribute to both platelet activation and endothelial inhibition of platelet adhesion and aggregation.
The translation eukaryotic elongation factor 1alpha (eEF1A) is a monomeric GTPase involved in protein synthesis. In addition, this protein is thought to participate in other cellular functions such as actin bundling, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis. Here we show that eEF1A is associated with the alpha2 subunit of the inhibitory glycine receptor in pulldown experiments with rat brain extracts. Moreover, additional proteins involved in translation like ribosomal S6 protein and p70 ribosomal S6 protein kinase as well as ERK1/2 and calcineurin were identified in the same pulldown approaches. Glycine receptor activation in spinal cord neurons cultured for 1 week resulted in an increased phosphorylation of ribosomal S6 protein. Immunocytochemistry showed that eEF1A and ribosomal S6 protein are localized in the soma, dendrites, and at synapses of cultured hippocampal and spinal cord neurons. Consistent with our biochemical data, immunoreactivities of both proteins were partially overlapping with glycine receptor immunoreactivity in cultured spinal cord and hippocampal neurons. After 5 weeks in culture, eEF1A immunoreactivity was redistributed to the cytoskeleton in about 45% of neurons. Interestingly, the degree of redistribution could be increased at earlier stages of in vitro differentiation by inhibition of either the ERK1/2 pathway or glycine receptors and simultaneous N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation. Our findings suggest a functional coupling of eEF1A with both inhibitory and excitatory receptors, possibly involving the ERK-signaling pathway.