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Patients with ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) suffer from progressive cerebellar ataxia, immunodeficiency, respiratory failure, and cancer susceptibility. From a clinical point of view, A-T patients with IgA deficiency show more symptoms and may have a poorer prognosis. In this study, we analyzed mortality and immunity data of 659 A-T patients with regard to IgA deficiency collected from the European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID) registry and from 66 patients with classical A-T who attended at the Frankfurt Goethe-University between 2012 and 2018. We studied peripheral B- and T-cell subsets and T-cell repertoire of the Frankfurt cohort and survival rates of all A-T patients in the ESID registry. Patients with A-T have significant alterations in their lymphocyte phenotypes. All subsets (CD3, CD4, CD8, CD19, CD4/CD45RA, and CD8/CD45RA) were significantly diminished compared to standard values. Patients with IgA deficiency (n = 35) had significantly lower lymphocyte counts compared to A-T patients without IgA deficiency (n = 31) due to a further decrease of naïve CD4 T-cells, central memory CD4 cells, and regulatory T-cells. Although both patient groups showed affected TCR-ß repertoires compared to controls, no differences could be detected between patients with and without IgA deficiency. Overall survival of patients with IgA deficiency was significantly diminished. For the first time, our data show that patients with IgA deficiency have significantly lower lymphocyte counts and subsets, which are accompanied with reduced survival, compared to A-T patients without IgA deficiency. IgA, a simple surrogate marker, is indicating the poorest prognosis for classical A-T patients. Both non-interventional clinical trials were registered at clinicaltrials.gov 2012 (Susceptibility to infections in ataxia-telangiectasia; NCT02345135) and 2017 (Susceptibility to Infections, tumor risk and liver disease in patients with ataxia-telangiectasia; NCT03357978)
Rapid immune reconstitution (IR) following stem cell transplantation (SCT) is essential for a favorable outcome. The optimization of graft composition should not only enable a sufficient IR but also improve graft vs. leukemia/tumor effects, overcome infectious complications and, finally, improve patient survival. Especially in haploidentical SCT, the optimization of graft composition is controversial. Therefore, we analyzed the influence of graft manipulation on IR in 40 patients with acute leukemia in remission. We examined the cell recovery post haploidentical SCT in patients receiving a CD34+-selected or CD3/CD19-depleted graft, considering the applied conditioning regimen. We used joint model analysis for overall survival (OS) and analyzed the dynamics of age-adjusted leukocytes; lymphocytes; monocytes; CD3+, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ T cells; natural killer (NK) cells; and B cells over the course of time after SCT. Lymphocytes, NK cells, and B cells expanded more rapidly after SCT with CD34+-selected grafts (P = 0.036, P = 0.002, and P < 0.001, respectively). Contrarily, CD3+CD4+ helper T cells recovered delayer in the CD34 selected group (P = 0.026). Furthermore, reduced intensity conditioning facilitated faster immune recovery of lymphocytes and T cells and their subsets (P < 0.001). However, the immune recovery for NK cells and B cells was comparable for patients who received reduced-intensity or full preparative regimens. Dynamics of all cell types had a significant influence on OS, which did not differ between patients receiving CD34+-selected and those receiving CD3/CD19-depleted grafts. In conclusion, cell reconstitution dynamics showed complex diversity with regard to the graft manufacturing procedure and conditioning regimen.
Monitoring of minimal residual disease (MRD) or chimerism may help guide pre-emptive immunotherapy (IT) with a view to preventing relapse in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) after transplantation. Patients with ALL who consecutively underwent transplantation in Frankfurt/Main, Germany between January 1, 2005 and July 1, 2014 were included in this retrospective study. Chimerism monitoring was performed in all, and MRD assessment was performed in 58 of 89 patients. IT was guided in 19 of 24 patients with mixed chimerism (MC) and MRD and by MRD only in another 4 patients with complete chimerism (CC). The 3-year probabilities of event-free survival (EFS) were .69 ± .06 for the cohort without IT and .69 ± .10 for IT patients. Incidences of relapse (CIR) and treatment-related mortality (CITRM) were equally distributed between both cohorts (without IT: 3-year CIR, .21 ± .05, 3-year CITRM, .10 ± .04; IT patients: 3-year CIR, .18 ± .09, 3-year CITRM .13 ± .07). Accordingly, 3-year EFS and 3-year CIR were similar in CC and MC patients with IT, whereas MC patients without IT experienced relapse. IT was neither associated with an enhanced immune recovery nor an increased risk for acute graft-versus-host disease. Relapse prevention by IT in patients at risk may lead to the same favorable outcome as found in CC and MRD-negative-patients. This underlines the importance of excellent MRD and chimerism monitoring after transplantation as the basis for IT to improve survival in childhood ALL.
Background: Prolonged immunosuppression or delayed T-cell recovery may favor Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection or reactivation after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), which can lead to post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) and high-grade malignant B-cell lymphoma. Cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells with dual specific anti-tumor and virus-specific cellular immunity may be applied in this context.
Methods: CIK cells with EBV-specificity were generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), expanded in the presence of interferon-γ, anti-CD3, interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15 and were pulsed twice with EBV consensus peptide pool. CIK cells with EBV-specificity and conventional CIK cells were phenotypically and functionally analyzed. Additionally, CIK cells with EBV-specificity were applied to a patient with EBV-related PTLD rapidly progressing to highly aggressive B-cell lymphoma on a compassionate use basis after approval and agreement by the regulatory authorities.
Results: Pre-clinical analysis showed that generation of CIK cells with EBV-specificity was feasible. In vitro cytotoxicity analyses showed increased lysis of EBV-positive target cells, enhanced proliferative capacity and increased secretion of cytolytic and proinflammatory cytokines in the presence of EBV peptide-displaying target cells. In addition, 1 week after infusion of CIK cells with EBV-specificity, the patient's highly aggressive B-cell lymphoma persistently disappeared. CIK cells with EBV-specificity remained detectable for up to 32 days after infusion and infusion did not result in acute toxicity.
Discussion: The transfer of both anti-cancer potential and T-cell memory against EBV infection provided by EBV peptide-induced CIK cells might be considered a therapy for EBV-related PTLD.
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is a potent new treatment option for relapsed or refractory hematologic malignancies. As the monitoring of CAR T cell kinetics can provide insights into the activity of the therapy, appropriate CAR T cell detection methods are essential. Here, we report on the comprehensive validation of a flow cytometric assay for peripheral blood CD19 CAR T cell detection. Further, a retrospective analysis (n = 30) of CAR T cell and B cell levels over time has been performed, and CAR T cell phenotypes have been characterized. Serial dilution experiments demonstrated precise and linear quantification down to 0.05% of T cells or 22 CAR T cell events. The calculated detection limit at 13 events was confirmed with CAR T cell negative control samples. Inter-method comparison with real-time PCR showed appreciable correlation. Stability testing revealed diminished CAR T cell values already one day after sample collection. While we found long-term CAR T cell detectability and B cell aplasia in most patients (12/17), some patients (5/17) experienced B cell recovery. In three of these patients the coexistence of CAR T cells and regenerating B cells was observed. Repeat CAR T cell infusions led to detectable but limited re-expansions. Comparison of CAR T cell subsets with their counterparts among all T cells showed a significantly higher percentage of effector memory T cells and a significantly lower percentage of naïve T cells and T EMRA cells among CAR T cells. In conclusion, flow cytometric CAR T cell detection is a reliable method to monitor CAR T cells if measurements start without delay and sufficient T cell counts are given.
Prognosis of refractory childhood cancers despite multimodal treatment strategies remains poor. Here, we report a single center experience encountered in 18 patients with refractory solid malignancies treated with adoptive cellular immunotherapy (ACI) from haploidentical or matched donors following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. While seven patients were in partial and six in complete remission (CR), five patients suffered from relapsed diseases at the time of ACI. 1.5-year probabilities of overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were 19.5% and 16.1% for all patients. Patients in CR showed estimated 1.5-year OS and PFS of 50.1% and 42.7%, respectively. CR was induced or rather sustained in ten children, with two still being alive 9.6 and 9.3 years after ACI. Naïve, central and effector memory T-cells correlated with responses. However, the majority of patients relapsed. Cumulative incidence of relapse was 79.8% at 1.5 years. Acute graft versus host disease (aGVHD) occurred in nine of 18 patients (50%) with aGVHD grade I–II observed in six (33%) and aGVHD grade III seen in three (17%) patients, manageable in all cases.
Altogether, study results indicate that donor-derived ACI at its current state offers palliation but no clear curative benefit for refractory childhood cancers and warrants further improvement.
B lymphocytes are key players in humoral immunity, expressing diverse surface immunoglobulin receptors directed against specific antigenic epitopes. The development and profile of distinct subpopulations have gained awareness in the setting of primary immunodeficiency disorders, primary or secondary autoimmunity and as therapeutic targets of specific antibodies in various diseases. The major B cell subpopulations in peripheral blood include naïve (CD19+ or CD20+IgD+CD27−), non-switched memory (CD19+ or CD20+IgD+CD27+) and switched memory B cells (CD19+ or CD20+IgD−CD27+). Furthermore, less common B cell subpopulations have also been described as having a role in the suppressive capacity of B cells to maintain self-tolerance. Data on reference values for B cell subpopulations are limited and only available for older age groups, neglecting the continuous process of human B cell development in children and adolescents. This study was designed to establish an exponential regression model to produce continuous reference values for main B cell subpopulations to reflect the dynamic maturation of the human immune system in healthy children.
Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) exerting graft-versus-leukemia/tumor effect and mediating pathogen-specific immunity. Although NK cells are the first donor-derived lymphocytes reconstituting post-HSCT, their distribution of CD56++CD16− (CD56bright), CD56++CD16+ (CD56intermediate=int), and CD56+CD16++ (CD56dim) NK cells is explicitly divergent from healthy adults, but to some extent comparable to the NK cell development in early childhood. The proportion of CD56bright/CD56int/CD56dim changed from 15/8/78% in early childhood to 6/4/90% in adults, respectively. Within this study, we first compared the NK cell reconstitution post-HSCT to reference values of NK cell subpopulations of healthy children. Afterward, we investigated the reconstitution of NK cell subpopulations post-HSCT in correlation to acute graft versus host disease (aGvHD) and chronic graft versus host disease (cGvHD) as well as to viral infections. Interestingly, after a HSCT follow-up phase of 12 months, the distribution of NK cell subpopulations largely matched the 50th percentile of the reference range for healthy individuals. Patients suffering from aGvHD and cGvHD showed a delayed reconstitution of NK cells. Remarkably, within the first 2 months post-HSCT, patients suffering from aGvHD had significantly lower levels of CD56bright NK cells compared to patients without viral infection or without graft versus host disease (GvHD). Therefore, the amount of CD56bright NK cells might serve as an early prognostic factor for GvHD development. Furthermore, a prolonged and elevated peak in CD56int NK cells seemed to be characteristic for the chronification of GvHD. In context of viral infection, a slightly lower CD56 and CD16 receptor expression followed by a considerable reduction in the absolute CD56dim NK cell numbers combined with reoccurrence of CD56int NK cells was observed. Our results suggest that a precise analysis of the reconstitution of NK cell subpopulations post-HSCT might indicate the occurrence of undesired events post-HSCT such as severe aGvHD.values
Die adoptive Immuntherapie mit hochaufgereinigten NK-Zellen bei pädiatrischen Patienten mit malignen Erkrankungen nach haploidenter SZT ist eine mögliche Therapieoption, um einen verstärkten GvL/GvT-Effekt zu bewirken und möglicherweise die Immunregeneration zu fördern. Als schwerwiegende Nebenwirkung ist bisher noch nicht eindeutig belegt, ob neben T-Zellen auch NK-Zellen in der Lage sind, eine GvHD auszulösen. In der Frankfurter Universitätskinderklinik wurden 7 Patienten (4xALL, 1xAML, 1xRMS IV und 1xM. Hodgkin) mit hochaufgereinigten unstimulierten NK-Zellen und 3 Patienten (3xNB IV) mit IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen nach haploidenter SZT behandelt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde in vitro untersucht, ob NK-Zellen durch die Stimulierung mit IL-2 einen gesteigerten GvL/T-Effekt aufweisen. Es wurden NK-Zellen von 5 verschiedenen gesunden Spendern (2 im Rahmen von Validierungsläufen und 3 zur Behandlung der 3 Patienten mit NB) zunächst immunomagnetisch im klinischen Maßstab mittels CD3-Depletion und darauffolgender CD56-Selektion aufgereinigt. Danach erfolgte die Aktivierung mit IL-2 (Proleukin®S) über 14 Tage unter GMP. Während sich die NK-Zellen aller Spender nach Aufreinigung in eine kleine Population CD56+CD16- immunregulatorischer NK-Zellen (2,3 bis 7,1 %) und eine große Population zytotoxischer CD56+CD16+ NK-Zellen (92,9 bis 97,7 %) unterteilen ließen, zeigte sich nach IL-2 Stimulierung ein heterogenes Bild von CD16+ zu CD16- NK-Zellen. Durch die 9-tägige IL-2 Stimulierung vergrößerte sich der Anteil KIRnegativer NK-Zellen. Es konnte auf den NK-Zellen aller Spender gezeigt werden, dass durch die IL-2 Stimulierung wichtige Rezeptoren (NKG2D, NCR), die für ein hohes zytotoxisches Potential stehen, verstärkt auf der NK-Zelloberfläche exprimiert wurden. Die gesteigerte Zytokinproduktion der IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen untermauerte die Funktionalität der ex vivo stimulierten NK-Zellen und dies konnte in funktionalen Assays, die die zytotoxische Aktivität von NK-Zellen belegen, bewiesen werden. Durch die IL-2 Stimulierung der NK-Zellen konnte die Killing Aktivität gleichmäßig auf über 90 % gesteigert werden. Interessanterweise wies Spender A bei den funktionellen und phänotypischen Analysen eine Sonderrolle auf. Die NK-Zellen dieses Spenders zeigten bereits vor IL-2 Stimulierung eine hohe Zytotoxizität gegenüber malignen Zellen, welches auf eine Voraktivierung, gemessen an der Expression von Aktivierungsmarker CD69, schließen lässt. Die in vivo Untersuchungen zeigten, dass bei einer verabreichten T-Zell-Dosis unter 50 x 103/KG, nur milde GvHDs (Grad I/II) auftraten. Bis zu 60 x 106 NK-Zellen/KG wurden gut toleriert. Nebenwirkungen wie Fieber und Schüttelfrost waren transient und gingen einher mit erhöhten Zytokinspiegeln von inflammatorischen Zytokinen (IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ) im Serum der Patienten. Ein engmaschiges Monitoring nach der NK-Zell-Applikation der IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen zeigte, dass die NK-Zellen in 5/6 Applikationen aus der peripheren Blutbahn abwanderten, einhergehend mit der Migration von Antigen-präsentierenden Zellen. Bei der Untersuchung des langfristigen Einflusses von adoptiver NK-Zell-Immuntherapie auf die Immunrekonstitution bei Patienten nach haploidenter SZT wurde vorausgehend eine Normwertstudie zu verschiedenen Leukozytensubpopulationen von 100 gesunden Kinder und Erwachsenen vorgenommen. Nach der Entwicklung eines stufenlosen, nicht-linearen Regressionsmodells konnte der Einfluss auf die Immunrekonstitution der Patienten nach SZT altersgerecht beurteilt werden. Weiterhin wurden Patientengruppen, die ebenfalls haploident transplantiert wurden, den NK-Zell-Studienpatienten gegenübergestellt. Eine signifikante Verbesserung durch die Gabe von NK-Zellen konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, dass die NK-Zellzahl innerhalb des ersten Monats nach SZT Normwerte erreichte, gefolgt von den zytotoxischen CD3+CD8+ T-Zellen 5-6 Monate nach haploidenter SZT, den THelfer Zellen und den B-Zellen nach über einem Jahr nach haploidenter SZT. Die allogene additive NK-Zell-Immuntherapie ist eine vielversprechende Therapieoption bei Patienten mit malignen Erkrankungen wie bspw. dem NB. Die NK-Zell-Aktivierung mit IL-2 bewies den Erhalt der Immunkompetenz. Dies war erkennbar an der gesteigerten zytotoxischen Funktionalität, der Zytokinproduktion und der Hochregulierung von zytotoxisch aktiven Rezeptoren. Eine verbesserte Immunrekonstitution kann durch das neue altersgerechte Lymphozyten-Norm-Modell besser beurteilt werden. Allerdings ist die Patientenanzahl und die Beobachtungszeit bisher zu gering, um in vivo ein verbessertes Überleben mit additiver NK-Zell-Immuntherapie wirklich abschätzen zu können.
Neuroblastoma (NB) is the most common solid extracranial tumor in childhood. Despite therapeutic progress, prognosis in high-risk NB is poor and innovative therapies are urgently needed. Therefore, we addressed the potential cytotoxic capacity of interleukin (IL)-activated natural killer (NK) cells compared to cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells for the treatment of NB. NK cells were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by indirect CD56-enrichment or CD3/CD19-depletion and expanded with different cytokine combinations, such as IL-2, IL-15, and/or IL-21 under feeder-cell free conditions. CIK cells were generated from PBMCs by ex vivo stimulation with interferon-γ, IL-2, OKT-3, and IL-15. Comparative analysis of expansion rate, purity, phenotype and cytotoxicity was performed. CD56-enriched NK cells showed a median expansion rate of 4.3-fold with up to 99% NK cell content. The cell product after CD3/CD19-depletion consisted of a median 43.5% NK cells that expanded significantly faster reaching also 99% of NK cell purity. After 10–12 days of expansion, both NK cell preparations showed a significantly higher median cytotoxic capacity against NB cells relative to CIK cells. Remarkably, these NK cells were also capable of efficiently killing NB spheroidal 3D culture in long-term cytotoxicity assays. Further optimization using a novel NK cell culture medium and a prolonged culturing procedure after CD3/CD19-depletion for up to 15 days enhanced the expansion rate up to 24.4-fold by maintaining the cytotoxic potential. Addition of an IL-21 boost prior to harvesting significantly increased the cytotoxicity. The final cell product consisted for the major part of CD16−, NCR-expressing, poly-functional NK cells with regard to cytokine production, CD107a degranulation and antitumor capacity. In summary, our study revealed that NK cells have a significantly higher cytotoxic potential to combat NB than CIK cell products, especially following the synergistic use of IL-15 and IL-21 for NK cell activation. Therefore, the use of IL-15+IL-21 expanded NK cells generated from CD3/CD19-depleted apheresis products seems to be highly promising as an immunotherapy in combination with haploidentical stem cell transplantation (SCT) for high-risk NB patients.