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Die adoptive Immuntherapie mit hochaufgereinigten NK-Zellen bei pädiatrischen Patienten mit malignen Erkrankungen nach haploidenter SZT ist eine mögliche Therapieoption, um einen verstärkten GvL/GvT-Effekt zu bewirken und möglicherweise die Immunregeneration zu fördern. Als schwerwiegende Nebenwirkung ist bisher noch nicht eindeutig belegt, ob neben T-Zellen auch NK-Zellen in der Lage sind, eine GvHD auszulösen. In der Frankfurter Universitätskinderklinik wurden 7 Patienten (4xALL, 1xAML, 1xRMS IV und 1xM. Hodgkin) mit hochaufgereinigten unstimulierten NK-Zellen und 3 Patienten (3xNB IV) mit IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen nach haploidenter SZT behandelt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde in vitro untersucht, ob NK-Zellen durch die Stimulierung mit IL-2 einen gesteigerten GvL/T-Effekt aufweisen. Es wurden NK-Zellen von 5 verschiedenen gesunden Spendern (2 im Rahmen von Validierungsläufen und 3 zur Behandlung der 3 Patienten mit NB) zunächst immunomagnetisch im klinischen Maßstab mittels CD3-Depletion und darauffolgender CD56-Selektion aufgereinigt. Danach erfolgte die Aktivierung mit IL-2 (Proleukin®S) über 14 Tage unter GMP. Während sich die NK-Zellen aller Spender nach Aufreinigung in eine kleine Population CD56+CD16- immunregulatorischer NK-Zellen (2,3 bis 7,1 %) und eine große Population zytotoxischer CD56+CD16+ NK-Zellen (92,9 bis 97,7 %) unterteilen ließen, zeigte sich nach IL-2 Stimulierung ein heterogenes Bild von CD16+ zu CD16- NK-Zellen. Durch die 9-tägige IL-2 Stimulierung vergrößerte sich der Anteil KIRnegativer NK-Zellen. Es konnte auf den NK-Zellen aller Spender gezeigt werden, dass durch die IL-2 Stimulierung wichtige Rezeptoren (NKG2D, NCR), die für ein hohes zytotoxisches Potential stehen, verstärkt auf der NK-Zelloberfläche exprimiert wurden. Die gesteigerte Zytokinproduktion der IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen untermauerte die Funktionalität der ex vivo stimulierten NK-Zellen und dies konnte in funktionalen Assays, die die zytotoxische Aktivität von NK-Zellen belegen, bewiesen werden. Durch die IL-2 Stimulierung der NK-Zellen konnte die Killing Aktivität gleichmäßig auf über 90 % gesteigert werden. Interessanterweise wies Spender A bei den funktionellen und phänotypischen Analysen eine Sonderrolle auf. Die NK-Zellen dieses Spenders zeigten bereits vor IL-2 Stimulierung eine hohe Zytotoxizität gegenüber malignen Zellen, welches auf eine Voraktivierung, gemessen an der Expression von Aktivierungsmarker CD69, schließen lässt. Die in vivo Untersuchungen zeigten, dass bei einer verabreichten T-Zell-Dosis unter 50 x 103/KG, nur milde GvHDs (Grad I/II) auftraten. Bis zu 60 x 106 NK-Zellen/KG wurden gut toleriert. Nebenwirkungen wie Fieber und Schüttelfrost waren transient und gingen einher mit erhöhten Zytokinspiegeln von inflammatorischen Zytokinen (IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ) im Serum der Patienten. Ein engmaschiges Monitoring nach der NK-Zell-Applikation der IL-2 stimulierten NK-Zellen zeigte, dass die NK-Zellen in 5/6 Applikationen aus der peripheren Blutbahn abwanderten, einhergehend mit der Migration von Antigen-präsentierenden Zellen. Bei der Untersuchung des langfristigen Einflusses von adoptiver NK-Zell-Immuntherapie auf die Immunrekonstitution bei Patienten nach haploidenter SZT wurde vorausgehend eine Normwertstudie zu verschiedenen Leukozytensubpopulationen von 100 gesunden Kinder und Erwachsenen vorgenommen. Nach der Entwicklung eines stufenlosen, nicht-linearen Regressionsmodells konnte der Einfluss auf die Immunrekonstitution der Patienten nach SZT altersgerecht beurteilt werden. Weiterhin wurden Patientengruppen, die ebenfalls haploident transplantiert wurden, den NK-Zell-Studienpatienten gegenübergestellt. Eine signifikante Verbesserung durch die Gabe von NK-Zellen konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, dass die NK-Zellzahl innerhalb des ersten Monats nach SZT Normwerte erreichte, gefolgt von den zytotoxischen CD3+CD8+ T-Zellen 5-6 Monate nach haploidenter SZT, den THelfer Zellen und den B-Zellen nach über einem Jahr nach haploidenter SZT. Die allogene additive NK-Zell-Immuntherapie ist eine vielversprechende Therapieoption bei Patienten mit malignen Erkrankungen wie bspw. dem NB. Die NK-Zell-Aktivierung mit IL-2 bewies den Erhalt der Immunkompetenz. Dies war erkennbar an der gesteigerten zytotoxischen Funktionalität, der Zytokinproduktion und der Hochregulierung von zytotoxisch aktiven Rezeptoren. Eine verbesserte Immunrekonstitution kann durch das neue altersgerechte Lymphozyten-Norm-Modell besser beurteilt werden. Allerdings ist die Patientenanzahl und die Beobachtungszeit bisher zu gering, um in vivo ein verbessertes Überleben mit additiver NK-Zell-Immuntherapie wirklich abschätzen zu können.
In an ongoing clinical phase I/II study, 16 pediatric patients suffering from high risk leukemia/tumors received highly purified donor natural killer (NK) cell immunotherapy (NK-DLI) at day (+3) +40 and +100 post haploidentical stem cell transplantation. However, literature about the influence of NK-DLI on recipient's immune system is scarce. Here we present concomitant results of a noninvasive in vivo monitoring approach of recipient's peripheral blood (PB) cells after transfer of either unstimulated (NK-DLI(unstim)) or IL-2 (1000 U/ml, 9–14 days) activated NK cells (NK-DLI(IL-2 stim)) along with their ex vivo secreted cytokine/chemokines. We performed phenotypical and functional characterizations of the NK-DLIs, detailed flow cytometric analyses of various PB cells and comprehensive cytokine/chemokine arrays before and after NK-DLI. Patients of both groups were comparable with regard to remission status, immune reconstitution, donor chimerism, KIR mismatching, stem cell and NK-DLI dose. Only after NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) was a rapid, almost complete loss of CD56(bright)CD16(dim/−) immune regulatory and CD56(dim)CD16(+) cytotoxic NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells and eosinophils from PB circulation seen 10 min after infusion, while neutrophils significantly increased. The reduction of NK cells was due to both, a decrease in patients' own CD69(−) NCR(low)CD62L(+) NK cells as well as to a diminishing of the transferred cells from the NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) with the CD56(bright)CD16(+/−)CD69(+)NCR(high)CD62L(−) phenotype. All cell counts recovered within the next 24 h. Transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) translated into significantly increased levels of various cytokines/chemokines (i.e. IFN-γ, IL-6, MIP-1β) in patients' PB. Those remained stable for at least 1 h, presumably leading to endothelial activation, leukocyte adhesion and/or extravasation. In contrast, NK-DLI(unstim) did not cause any of the observed effects. In conclusion, we assume that the adoptive transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) under the influence of ex vivo and in vivo secreted cytokines/chemokines may promote NK cell trafficking and therefore might enhance efficacy of immunotherapy.
Background: Cytokine-induced-killer (CIK) cells are a promising immunotherapeutic approach for impending relapse following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). However, there is a high risk for treatment failure associated with severe graft versus host disease (GvHD) necessitating pharmaceutical intervention post-transplant. Whether immunosuppression with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) or Ciclosporin A (CsA) influences the cytotoxic effect of CIK cell immunotherapy is still an open issue.
Methods: CIK cells were generated from PBMC as previously described followed by co-incubation with mycophenolic acid (MPA) or CsA. Proliferation, cytotoxicity and receptor expression were investigated following short- (24 h), intermediate- (3 days) and long-term (7 days) MPA incubation with the intention to simulate the in vivo situation when CIK cells were given to a patient with relevant MPA/CsA plasma levels.
Results: Short-term MPA treatment led to unchanged proliferation capacity and barely had any effect on viability and cytotoxic capability in vitro. The composition of CIK cells with respect to T-, NK-like T- and NK cells remained stable. Intermediate MPA treatment lacked effects on NKG2D, FasL and TRAIL receptor expression, while an influence on proliferation and viability was detectable. Furthermore, long-term treatment significantly impaired proliferation, restricted viability and drastically reduced migration-relevant receptors accompanied by an alteration in the CD4/CD8 ratio. CD3+CD56+ cells upregulated receptors relevant for CIK cell killing and migration, whereas T cells showed the most interference through significant reductions in receptor expression. Interestingly, CsA treatment had no significant influence on CIK cell viability and the cytotoxic potential against K562.
Conclusions: Our data indicate that if immunosuppressant therapy is indispensable, efficacy of CIK cells is maintained at least short-term, although more frequent dosing might be necessary.
Monitoring of minimal residual disease (MRD) or chimerism may help guide pre-emptive immunotherapy (IT) with a view to preventing relapse in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) after transplantation. Patients with ALL who consecutively underwent transplantation in Frankfurt/Main, Germany between January 1, 2005 and July 1, 2014 were included in this retrospective study. Chimerism monitoring was performed in all, and MRD assessment was performed in 58 of 89 patients. IT was guided in 19 of 24 patients with mixed chimerism (MC) and MRD and by MRD only in another 4 patients with complete chimerism (CC). The 3-year probabilities of event-free survival (EFS) were .69 ± .06 for the cohort without IT and .69 ± .10 for IT patients. Incidences of relapse (CIR) and treatment-related mortality (CITRM) were equally distributed between both cohorts (without IT: 3-year CIR, .21 ± .05, 3-year CITRM, .10 ± .04; IT patients: 3-year CIR, .18 ± .09, 3-year CITRM .13 ± .07). Accordingly, 3-year EFS and 3-year CIR were similar in CC and MC patients with IT, whereas MC patients without IT experienced relapse. IT was neither associated with an enhanced immune recovery nor an increased risk for acute graft-versus-host disease. Relapse prevention by IT in patients at risk may lead to the same favorable outcome as found in CC and MRD-negative-patients. This underlines the importance of excellent MRD and chimerism monitoring after transplantation as the basis for IT to improve survival in childhood ALL.
Maintenance therapy after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is conceptually attractive to prevent relapse, but has been hampered by the limited number of suitable anti-leukemic agents. The deacetylase inhibitor (DACi) panobinostat demonstrated moderate anti-leukemic activity in a small subset of patients with advanced AML and high-risk MDS in phase I/II trials.1, 2 It also displays immunomodulatory activity3 that may enhance leukemia-specific cytotoxicity4 and mitigate graft versus host disease (GvHD), but conversely could impair T- and NK cell function.5, 6 We conducted this open-label, multi-center phase I/II trial (NCT01451268) to assess the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of prolonged prophylactic administration of panobinostat after HSCT for AML or MDS. The study protocol was approved by an independent ethics committee and conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All patients provided written informed consent. ...
Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) exerting graft-versus-leukemia/tumor effect and mediating pathogen-specific immunity. Although NK cells are the first donor-derived lymphocytes reconstituting post-HSCT, their distribution of CD56++CD16− (CD56bright), CD56++CD16+ (CD56intermediate=int), and CD56+CD16++ (CD56dim) NK cells is explicitly divergent from healthy adults, but to some extent comparable to the NK cell development in early childhood. The proportion of CD56bright/CD56int/CD56dim changed from 15/8/78% in early childhood to 6/4/90% in adults, respectively. Within this study, we first compared the NK cell reconstitution post-HSCT to reference values of NK cell subpopulations of healthy children. Afterward, we investigated the reconstitution of NK cell subpopulations post-HSCT in correlation to acute graft versus host disease (aGvHD) and chronic graft versus host disease (cGvHD) as well as to viral infections. Interestingly, after a HSCT follow-up phase of 12 months, the distribution of NK cell subpopulations largely matched the 50th percentile of the reference range for healthy individuals. Patients suffering from aGvHD and cGvHD showed a delayed reconstitution of NK cells. Remarkably, within the first 2 months post-HSCT, patients suffering from aGvHD had significantly lower levels of CD56bright NK cells compared to patients without viral infection or without graft versus host disease (GvHD). Therefore, the amount of CD56bright NK cells might serve as an early prognostic factor for GvHD development. Furthermore, a prolonged and elevated peak in CD56int NK cells seemed to be characteristic for the chronification of GvHD. In context of viral infection, a slightly lower CD56 and CD16 receptor expression followed by a considerable reduction in the absolute CD56dim NK cell numbers combined with reoccurrence of CD56int NK cells was observed. Our results suggest that a precise analysis of the reconstitution of NK cell subpopulations post-HSCT might indicate the occurrence of undesired events post-HSCT such as severe aGvHD.values
Background: Prolonged immunosuppression or delayed T-cell recovery may favor Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection or reactivation after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), which can lead to post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) and high-grade malignant B-cell lymphoma. Cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells with dual specific anti-tumor and virus-specific cellular immunity may be applied in this context.
Methods: CIK cells with EBV-specificity were generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), expanded in the presence of interferon-γ, anti-CD3, interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15 and were pulsed twice with EBV consensus peptide pool. CIK cells with EBV-specificity and conventional CIK cells were phenotypically and functionally analyzed. Additionally, CIK cells with EBV-specificity were applied to a patient with EBV-related PTLD rapidly progressing to highly aggressive B-cell lymphoma on a compassionate use basis after approval and agreement by the regulatory authorities.
Results: Pre-clinical analysis showed that generation of CIK cells with EBV-specificity was feasible. In vitro cytotoxicity analyses showed increased lysis of EBV-positive target cells, enhanced proliferative capacity and increased secretion of cytolytic and proinflammatory cytokines in the presence of EBV peptide-displaying target cells. In addition, 1 week after infusion of CIK cells with EBV-specificity, the patient's highly aggressive B-cell lymphoma persistently disappeared. CIK cells with EBV-specificity remained detectable for up to 32 days after infusion and infusion did not result in acute toxicity.
Discussion: The transfer of both anti-cancer potential and T-cell memory against EBV infection provided by EBV peptide-induced CIK cells might be considered a therapy for EBV-related PTLD.
B lymphocytes are key players in humoral immunity, expressing diverse surface immunoglobulin receptors directed against specific antigenic epitopes. The development and profile of distinct subpopulations have gained awareness in the setting of primary immunodeficiency disorders, primary or secondary autoimmunity and as therapeutic targets of specific antibodies in various diseases. The major B cell subpopulations in peripheral blood include naïve (CD19+ or CD20+IgD+CD27−), non-switched memory (CD19+ or CD20+IgD+CD27+) and switched memory B cells (CD19+ or CD20+IgD−CD27+). Furthermore, less common B cell subpopulations have also been described as having a role in the suppressive capacity of B cells to maintain self-tolerance. Data on reference values for B cell subpopulations are limited and only available for older age groups, neglecting the continuous process of human B cell development in children and adolescents. This study was designed to establish an exponential regression model to produce continuous reference values for main B cell subpopulations to reflect the dynamic maturation of the human immune system in healthy children.
Ataxia telangiectasia (A-T) is a primary immunodeficiency with mutations in the gene encoding the A-T mutated (ATM) protein that interacts with immune, hematopoietic, and endocrine targets resulting in broad multi-systemic clinical manifestations with a devastating outcome. Apart from a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, A-T leads to significantly increased susceptibility to malignancies. It is a matter of discussion whether pre-emptive allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) using a reduced intensity conditioning regimen would be an option to restore immune-competence and prevent malignancy, as shown in animal models, because conventional treatment protocols of malignant diseases using radio- and/or chemotherapy have a high rate of therapy-related morbidity and mortality in these patients. We present the course of the disease, including immune reconstitution and neurological outcome following pre-emptive alloHSCT in a 4-year-old boy with A-T on a 6 year follow-up. Our manuscript provides a proof-of-concept of alloHSCT as an individual pre-emptive treatment strategy from which some A-T patients might benefit.
Rapid immune reconstitution (IR) following stem cell transplantation (SCT) is essential for a favorable outcome. The optimization of graft composition should not only enable a sufficient IR but also improve graft vs. leukemia/tumor effects, overcome infectious complications and, finally, improve patient survival. Especially in haploidentical SCT, the optimization of graft composition is controversial. Therefore, we analyzed the influence of graft manipulation on IR in 40 patients with acute leukemia in remission. We examined the cell recovery post haploidentical SCT in patients receiving a CD34+-selected or CD3/CD19-depleted graft, considering the applied conditioning regimen. We used joint model analysis for overall survival (OS) and analyzed the dynamics of age-adjusted leukocytes; lymphocytes; monocytes; CD3+, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ T cells; natural killer (NK) cells; and B cells over the course of time after SCT. Lymphocytes, NK cells, and B cells expanded more rapidly after SCT with CD34+-selected grafts (P = 0.036, P = 0.002, and P < 0.001, respectively). Contrarily, CD3+CD4+ helper T cells recovered delayer in the CD34 selected group (P = 0.026). Furthermore, reduced intensity conditioning facilitated faster immune recovery of lymphocytes and T cells and their subsets (P < 0.001). However, the immune recovery for NK cells and B cells was comparable for patients who received reduced-intensity or full preparative regimens. Dynamics of all cell types had a significant influence on OS, which did not differ between patients receiving CD34+-selected and those receiving CD3/CD19-depleted grafts. In conclusion, cell reconstitution dynamics showed complex diversity with regard to the graft manufacturing procedure and conditioning regimen.