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Dihydrocodein wird im wesentlichen zu Dihydrocodein-6-O-43-ß-glucuronid (DHC6G), Dihydromorphin (DHM), Dihydromorpbin-3-O-ß-D-glucuronid (DHM3G), Dihydromorphin-6-O-ß-D-glucuronid (DHM6G) und Nordihydrocodein (NDHC) biotransformiert. In Analogie zu Codein wird vermutet, dass die Metaboliten DHM und DHM6G pharmkologisch deutlich aktiver als die Muttersubstanz sind und somit zur Wirkung von DHC wesentlich beitragen können, auch wenn sie nur in geringen Mengen gebildet werden. Da die O-Demethylierung von Dihydrocodein zu Dihydromorphin durch das polymorphe Cytochrom P450-Enzym CYP2D6 katalysiert wird, sind in EM (schnelle Metabolisierer) und PM (langsame Metabolisierer, weisen kein funktionelles CYP2D6-Enzym auf) unterschiedliche Metabolitenprofile zu beobachten. In etwa 5-10% der Kaukasier, die PM für CYP2D6 sind, könnte sich somit ein Therapiemisserfolg nach Gabe von therapeutisch empfohlenen Standarddosen an DHC einstellen. Es war daher Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit, die Bedeutung der Biotransformation für die Wirkung von Dihydrocodein beim Menschen zu untersuchen. Im Rahmen dieser Untersuchung wurden Affinitätsprofile an Hirnmembranpräparationen und Affinitäts- und Aktivitätsprofile an humanen Neuroblastomzellen für DHC und seine Metaboliten erstellt. Des weiteren wurden pharmakokinetische und pharmakodynamische Parameter (und deren Zusammenhang) von Dihydrocodein und seinen Metaboliten beim gesunden Menschen unter Berücksichtigung des CYP2D6-Phänotyps mit Hilfe einer Pilot-Probandenstudie bestimmt. Zuletzt wurden die Ergebnisse der Affinitäts- und Aktivitätsversuche mit den Ergebnissen der Probandenstudie unter Berücksichtigung der verfügbaren Literaturdaten in Zusammenhang gebracht. Di in vitro-Untersuchungen zeigten, dass alls Prüfsubstanzen mit Ausnahme des unwirksamen DHM3G vorwiegend u-selektive Agonisten waren und dass das prinzipielle Verhältnis der Affinitäten bzw. Aktivitäten der einzelnen aktiven Prüfsubstanzen zueinander in allen Untersuchungen annähernd gleich war. Auf Grundlage dieser Daten konnte folgender Grundsatz formuliert werden; Die Affinitäten/Aktivitäten von DHM und DHM6G waren etwa um den Faktor 100 größer als die von DHC, während die anderen Metaboliten (mit Ausnahme des unwirksamen DHM3G) vergleichbare Affinitäten/Aktivitäten besaßen. Die im Rahmen der Probandenstudie ermittelten pharmakokinetischen Werte bestätigten verfügbare Literaturdaten, insbesondere dass CYP2D6 wesentlich für die Bildung von DHM war. So konnten weder DHM, DHM3G noch DHM6G in Plasma und Urin von PM detektiert werden. Die pharmakodynamischep Untersuchungen mittels Pupillometrie zeigten einen signifikanten Unterschied im ursprünglichen Pupillendurchmesser an den Zeitpunkten 1 bis 6 Stunden zwischen Placebo einerseits und EM bzw. PM andererseits. Damit konnte zunächst eine eigene in vivo-Wirkung von DHC beim Menschen nachgewiesen werden. Jedoch ergab sich kein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen EM und PM. Im zweiten pharmakodynamischen Modell (Schmerzmodell) konnten bezüglich der Parameter R-III-Reflexschwelle und VAS-EC30 keine Unterschiede sowohl zwischen EM und PM als auch zwischen Placebo und EM bzw. PM festgestellt werden, so dass 60 mg DHC keine analgetische Wirkung hatte oder das Modell für die Ermittlung der analgetischen Potenz von 60 mg DHC ungeeignet war. Einschränkend muss jedoch hier erwähnt werden, dass die Studie aufgrund der kleinen Fallzahl nur Pilotcharakter aufwies. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit in Zusammenhang mit den verfügbaren Literaturdaten lassen die Schlussfolgerung zu, dass die pharmakologisch wesentlich aktiveren Metaboliten DHM und DHM6G nicht oder nur geringfügig zur Wirkung von DHC nach oraler Einzelgabe von 60 mg DHC beitragen. Gründe hierfür könnten die geringe Bildung von DHM und seinen Metaboliten (ca. 9%) und/oder durch Verteilung und Ausscheidung bedingte niedrige Konzentrationen am Rezeptor in vivo sein. Somit scheint die Biotransformation keine Bedeutung für die Wirkung von DHC zu haben. Entsprechend sind keine Unterschiede in der Therapie von EM und PM mit niedrigen therapierelevanten DHC-Dosen zu erwarten.
FTY720 is a novel immunosuppressive drug that inhibits the egress of lymphocytes from secondary lymphoid tissues and thymus. In its phosphorylated form FTY720 is a potent S1P receptor agonist. Recently it was also shown that FTY720 can reduce prostaglandin synthesis through the direct inhibition of the cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2). Since prostaglandins are important mediators of nociception, we studied the effects of FTY720 in different models of nociception. We found that intraperitoneal administration of FTY720 reduced dose-dependently the nociceptive behaviour of rats in the formalin assay. Although the antinociceptive doses of FTY720 were too low to alter the lymphocyte count, prostanoid concentrations in the plasma were dramatically reduced. Surprisingly, intrathecally administered FTY720 reduced the nociceptive behaviour in the formalin assay without altering spinal prostaglandin synthesis, indicating that additional antinociceptive mechanisms beside the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis are involved. Accordingly, FTY720 reduced also the nociceptive behaviour in the spared nerve injury model for neuropathic pain which does not depend on prostaglandin synthesis. In this model the antinociceptive effect of FTY720 was similar to gabapentin, a commonly used drug to treat neuropathic pain. Taken together we show for the first time that FTY720 possesses antinociceptive properties and that FTY720 reduces nociceptive behaviour during neuropathic pain.
The introduction of a common currency as well as the harmonization of rules and regulations in Europe has significantly reduced distance in all its guises. With reduced costs of overcoming space, this emphasizes centripetal forces and it should foster consolidation of financial activity. In a national context, as a rule, this led to the emergence of one financial center. Hence, Europeanization of financial and monetary affairs could foretell the relegation of some European financial hubs such as Frankfurt and Paris to third-rank status. Frankfurt’s financial history is interesting insofar as it has lost (in the 1870s) and regained (mainly in the 1980s) its preeminent place in the German context. Because Europe is still characterized by local pockets of information-sensitive assets as well as a demand for variety the national analogy probably does not hold. There is room in Europe for a number of financial hubs of an international dimension, including Frankfurt.
The first measurement of two-pion Bose–Einstein correlations in central Pb–Pb collisions at √sNN=2.76 TeV at the Large Hadron Collider is presented. We observe a growing trend with energy now not only for the longitudinal and the outward but also for the sideward pion source radius. The pion homogeneity volume and the decoupling time are significantly larger than those measured at RHIC.
Inclusive transverse momentum spectra of primary charged particles in Pb–Pb collisions at √sNN=2.76 TeV have been measured by the ALICE Collaboration at the LHC. The data are presented for central and peripheral collisions, corresponding to 0–5% and 70–80% of the hadronic Pb–Pb cross section. The measured charged particle spectra in |η|<0.8 and 0.3<pT<20 GeV/c are compared to the expectation in pp collisions at the same sNN, scaled by the number of underlying nucleon–nucleon collisions. The comparison is expressed in terms of the nuclear modification factor RAA. The result indicates only weak medium effects (RAA≈0.7) in peripheral collisions. In central collisions, RAA reaches a minimum of about 0.14 at pT=6–7 GeV/c and increases significantly at larger pT. The measured suppression of high-pT particles is stronger than that observed at lower collision energies, indicating that a very dense medium is formed in central Pb–Pb collisions at the LHC.
The inclusive charged particle transverse momentum distribution is measured in proton–proton collisions at s=900 GeV at the LHC using the ALICE detector. The measurement is performed in the central pseudorapidity region (|η|<0.8) over the transverse momentum range 0.15<pT<10 GeV/c. The correlation between transverse momentum and particle multiplicity is also studied. Results are presented for inelastic (INEL) and non-single-diffractive (NSD) events. The average transverse momentum for |η|<0.8 is 〈pT〉INEL=0.483±0.001 (stat.)±0.007 (syst.) GeV/c and 〈pT〉NSD=0.489±0.001 (stat.)±0.007 (syst.) GeV/c, respectively. The data exhibit a slightly larger 〈pT〉 than measurements in wider pseudorapidity intervals. The results are compared to simulations with the Monte Carlo event generators PYTHIA and PHOJET.
The design, construction, and commissioning of the ALICE Time-Projection Chamber (TPC) is described. It is the main device for pattern recognition, tracking, and identification of charged particles in the ALICE experiment at the CERN LHC. The TPC is cylindrical in shape with a volume close to 90 m3 and is operated in a 0.5 T solenoidal magnetic field parallel to its axis.
In this paper we describe in detail the design considerations for this detector for operation in the extreme multiplicity environment of central Pb–Pb collisions at LHC energy. The implementation of the resulting requirements into hardware (field cage, read-out chambers, electronics), infrastructure (gas and cooling system, laser-calibration system), and software led to many technical innovations which are described along with a presentation of all the major components of the detector, as currently realized. We also report on the performance achieved after completion of the first round of stand-alone calibration runs and demonstrate results close to those specified in the TPC Technical Design Report.
Background: R-flurbiprofen, one of the enantiomers of flurbiprofen racemate, is inactive with respect to cyclooxygenase inhibition, but shows analgesic properties without relevant toxicity. Its mode of action is still unclear. Methodology/Principal Findings: We show that R-flurbiprofen reduces glutamate release in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord evoked by sciatic nerve injury and thereby alleviates pain in sciatic nerve injury models of neuropathic pain in rats and mice. This is mediated by restoring the balance of endocannabinoids (eCB), which is disturbed following peripheral nerve injury in the DRGs, spinal cord and forebrain. The imbalance results from transcriptional adaptations of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and NAPE-phospholipase D, i.e. the major enzymes involved in anandamide metabolism and synthesis, respectively. R-flurbiprofen inhibits FAAH activity and normalizes NAPE-PLD expression. As a consequence, R-Flurbiprofen improves endogenous cannabinoid mediated effects, indicated by the reduction of glutamate release, increased activity of the anti-inflammatory transcription factor PPAR gamma and attenuation of microglia activation. Antinociceptive effects are lost by combined inhibition of CB1 and CB2 receptors and partially abolished in CB1 receptor deficient mice. R-flurbiprofen does however not cause changes of core body temperature which is a typical indicator of central effects of cannabinoid-1 receptor agonists. Conclusion: Our results suggest that R-flurbiprofen improves the endogenous mechanisms to regain stability after axonal injury and to fend off chronic neuropathic pain by modulating the endocannabinoid system and thus constitutes an attractive, novel therapeutic agent in the treatment of chronic, intractable pain.
Rapidity and transverse momentum dependence of inclusive J/ψ production in pp collisions at √s=7 TeV
(2011)
The ALICE experiment at the LHC has studied inclusive J/ψ production at central and forward rapidities in pp collisions at √s=7 TeV. In this Letter, we report on the first results obtained detecting the J/ψ through the dilepton decay into e+e− and μ+μ− pairs in the rapidity ranges |y|<0.9 and 2.5<y<4, respectively, and with acceptance down to zero pT. In the dielectron channel the analysis was carried out on a data sample corresponding to an integrated luminosity Lint=5.6 nb−1 and the number of signal events is NJ/ψ=352±32(stat.)±28(syst.); the corresponding figures in the dimuon channel are Lint=15.6 nb−1 and NJ/ψ=1924±77(stat.)±144(syst.). The measured production cross sections are σJ/ψ(|y|<0.9)=10.7±1.0(stat.)±1.6(syst.)−2.3+1.6(syst.pol.)μb and σJ/ψ(2.5<y<4)=6.31±0.25(stat.)±0.76(syst.)−1.96+0.95(syst.pol.)μb. The differential cross sections, in transverse momentum and rapidity, of the J/ψ were also measured.
Introduction: Evidence from a number of open-label, uncontrolled studies has suggested that rituximab may benefit patients with autoimmune diseases who are refractory to standard-of-care. The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety and clinical outcomes of rituximab in several standard-of-care-refractory autoimmune diseases (within rheumatology, nephrology, dermatology and neurology) other than rheumatoid arthritis or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in a real-life clinical setting.
Methods: Patients who received rituximab having shown an inadequate response to standard-of-care had their safety and clinical outcomes data retrospectively analysed as part of the German Registry of Autoimmune Diseases. The main outcome measures were safety and clinical response, as judged at the discretion of the investigators.
Results: A total of 370 patients (299 patient-years) with various autoimmune diseases (23.0% with systemic lupus erythematosus, 15.7% antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated granulomatous vasculitides, 15.1% multiple sclerosis and 10.0% pemphigus) from 42 centres received a mean dose of 2,440 mg of rituximab over a median (range) of 194 (180 to 1,407) days. The overall rate of serious infections was 5.3 per 100 patient-years during rituximab therapy. Opportunistic infections were infrequent across the whole study population, and mostly occurred in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. There were 11 deaths (3.0% of patients) after rituximab treatment (mean 11.6 months after first infusion, range 0.8 to 31.3 months), with most of the deaths caused by infections. Overall (n = 293), 13.3% of patients showed no response, 45.1% showed a partial response and 41.6% showed a complete response. Responses were also reflected by reduced use of glucocorticoids and various immunosuppressives during rituximab therapy and follow-up compared with before rituximab. Rituximab generally had a positive effect on patient well-being (physician's visual analogue scale; mean improvement from baseline of 12.1 mm).
Conclusions: Data from this registry indicate that rituximab is a commonly employed, well-tolerated therapy with potential beneficial effects in standard of care-refractory autoimmune diseases, and support the results from other open-label, uncontrolled studies.