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The promotion and extension of continuous cover mixed stands with a simultaneous reduction of conifer-monocultures play a major role in current silvicultural practices in Central Europe. It is assumed that the admixture of the natural dominant beech (Fagus sylvatica) in pure non site-specific conifer stands automatically indicates better conditions in terms of nature conservation and forest management. To test this hypothesis three different conifer-beech-comparisons of pure and mixed stands in Lower Saxony are studied, analyzing plant species diversity and naturalness of understory vegetation as one important indicator for the ecological status of forests. Each comparison includes pure coniferous stands (Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Pseudotsuga menziesii), mixed coniferous-beech-stands, and pure beech stands on similar acidic mineral soils where the potential natural vegetation will be an oligotrophic beech forest (L u z u l o - Fa g e t um). The age of stands varies between 50 and 150 years. To specify tree species influence on site conditions and vegetation, the study also includes light climate and soil data of the stands. It is observed that, with regard to all comparisons, the admixture of beech reduces plant species diversity but increases naturalness of the stands. The intensity of beech admixture effects differs. While in Scots pine stands the impact of admixed beech is very noticeable, with the mixed stands being nearly identical with pure beech stands, the species change in Douglas-fir and Norway spruce stands proceeds more slowly. Assuming that the status in nature conservation and forest management is improving with increasing plant species diversity and increasing naturalness, the results of this study show a contrary development on a stand scale, as the potential natural vegetation of the L u z u l o - F a g e t u m is in its self very species poor on vascular plants.
Herb induced liver injury (HILI) is a particular challenge that also applies to purported cases presumably caused by black cohosh (BC), an herb commonly used to treat menopausal symptoms. We analyzed and reviewed all published case reports and spontaneous reports of initially alleged BC hepatotoxicity regarding quality of case details and causality assessments. Shortcomings of data quality were more evident in spontaneous reports of regulatory agencies compared to published case reports, but assessments with the scale of CIOMS (Council for the International Organizations of Sciences) or its updated version revealed lack of causality for BC in all cases. The applied causality methods are structured, quantitative, and liver specific with clear preference over an ad hoc causality method or the liver unspecific Naranjo scale. Reviewing the case data and the reports dealing with quality specifications of herbal BC products, there is general lack of analysis with respect to authentication of BC in the BC products used by the patients. However, in one single regulatory study, there was a problem of BC authentication in the analysed BC products, and other reports addressed the question of impurities and adulterants in a few BC products. It is concluded that the use of BC may not exert an overt hepatotoxicity risk, but quality problems in a few BC products were evident that require additional regulatory quality specifications.