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P2X receptors are ligand (ATP)-gated ion channels that open an intrinsic cation permeable pathway in response to extracellular ATP released from both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. P2X receptors are abundantly distributed and mediate a wide variety of physiological functions, ranging from fast synaptic transmission in the central, peripheral, and enteric nervous system, to proinflammatory cytokine release from immune cells. The primary aim of this work was to elucidate the pathway that leads to the finally assembled trimeric P2X receptors, including the assessment of a possible role of ER chaperones and folding factors in this process. Additionally, the study was conducted to investigate the various ER quality control processes involved in the selection of “properly folded and assembled” P2X receptors that are suitable for the surface expression.
The N-terminal domain (matrix protein or MA) of a retroviral Gag polyprotein precursor plays a critical role in several stages of the retrovirus life cycle. MA is involved in the effective membrane targeting, assembly and release of the immature viral particles from the infected cell. In order to understand the structural basis of these functions, the full length MA from Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) was purified and the solution structure of the MA MoMuLV was determined by means of heteronuclear high-resolution NMR spectroscopy and compared with that of the X-ray diffraction analysis as well as with the structures of several MA proteins from geterologous viruses. Structural features were also obtained from CD spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, sedimentation velocity, differential scanning calorimetry and other methods. It was found that the MA MoMuLV globular core (residues 8-98) is comprised of 7 well-defined helices (five alpha-helices and two 310 helices), with the general fold typical for MA proteins from other retroviral species. The N-terminus (residues Met1-Leu7) and the C-terminal proline-rich part (residues Pro103-Tyr131) are not structured in solution. Although MA MoMuLV has a low sequence identity compared with other matrix proteins for which the three-dimensional structure is known, it was shown that its overall topology and pattern of secondary structural units is similar to other retroviral matrix proteins. The monomeric state is observed for the correctly folded MA MoMuLV in a variety of external conditions and protein concentrations, indicating that virion assembly starts with the plasma membrane targeting of the nascent Gag precursor. The denaturation of MA MoMuLV is irreversible and is connected with protein aggregation. For Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (MoMuLV) a proteolytic processing of the R-peptide (last 16 amino acids from the C-terminus of the Envelope protein (Env)) has been described as a second mode of fusion and activation preceding the receptor contact between the viral particle and the cellular membrane. An interaction between the R-peptide and MA MoMuLV has been proposed, since the R-peptide and MA are localized at the inner part of the membrane. Therefore the interaction between 15N labelled purified MA MoMuLV and synthesized R-peptide has been investigated using high-resolution NMR. It was found that in water solution MA MoMuLV and R-peptide do not form a tight complex, but in a mature virion in the presence of membranes or other protein factors it might be possible. In the case of HIV-1 the cytoplasmic part (EnvC) of the Env protein is much longer than in other retroviruses and again as for MoMuLV little is known about the interaction between EnvC and HIV MA. Hence, the full length HIV MA, and the last 150 amino acids from HIV Env have been subcloned with suitable expression vectors, purified and analysed by native gel electrophoresis, a pull down assay and by high resolution NMR for the purpose to detect the complex formation of EnvC and HIV MA. Finally, after all those experiments, it was found that a stable complex is not formed, but a weak interaction between the two proteins can not be excluded.
In mitochondrial respiration, the soluble protein cytochrome c accepts an electron from the membrane bound cytochrome bc1. The interaction between cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c is highly transient in nature, enabling turnover numbers greater than 160 s-1. Yeast cytochrome bc1 has been successfully crystallised with bound cytochrome c with the help of an antibody fragment (Lange and Hunte 2002; Solmaz and Hunte 2008). In all crystal structures of the complex, the homodimeric cytochrome bc1 binds only one cytochrome c, with the binding site located on subunit cytochrome c1. Univalent cytochrome c binding is correlated with conformational changes of the Rieske protein head domain and subunit QCR6p. The interface of the complex is small. The haem moieties are centrally located in a mainly non-polar contact site that includes a cation–! interaction and is surrounded by complementary charged residues. The crystal structure is in agreement with the general architecture of the interfaces of transient redox complexes and also reveals several interesting features unique to the cytochrome bc1. On the basis of the crystal structures, an extensive thermodynamic and kinetic characterisation of the interaction was carried out in this work to challenge the static snapshot of the bound proteins in the crystal structure as the relevant physiological electron transfer. The thermodynamic parameters of the interaction between the redox partners were determined using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The association constant for cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c in oxidised state under physiological ionic strength of 120 mM at 25 °C, was determined to be 5 " 103 M-1 by direct ITC titration. So, the partners interact with an affinity of 200 #M. In spite of the low affinity the complex has a life time ($ = 1/koff) of 5 #second, sufficiently long to enable the theoretically calculated electron transfer rates of 1.0 " 106 to 2.6 " 107 s%1 with a lifetime ($ = 1/rate) of 1-0.04 μseconds and experimentally determined rate of 7.7 " 104 s%1 with a lifetime of 13 μseconds. The low affinity makes it difficult to ascertain the stoichiometry of binding. The enthalpy of the interaction is endothermic, which is consistent with the nature of an interface where hydrophobic interactions are dominant. The enthalpy and entropy is 3.6 kJmol-1 and 83 kJmol-1K-1, respectively. The importance of key interface residues was also investigated. The role of the interface residue G89 of cytochrome c which might have a role in the dissociation of the complex has been probed by site-directed mutagenesis. The interface contains a cation-! interaction between F230 of cytochrome bc1 and R19 of cytochrome c, which is thought to provide the specificity to the interaction between the otherwise promiscuous partners. To analyse the role of this interaction pair in electron transfer, F230L and F230W mutants were used to measure direct electron transfer rates by flash photolysis and steady state kinetics. The findings indicate that another ! system can work as functional substitution of F230, while deleting the ! system has a deleterious effect on the complex formation. The inability of F230L to achieve the transient and steady state turnover rates as wild type protein indicates a scenario where the variant achieves an altered bound state with inefficient electron transfer pathways and higher edge-to-edge distance. The role of supernumerary subunit QCR6p in complex formation was investigated by steady state kinetics measurements. Subunit QCR6p does not interact directly with cytochrome c but is positioned in such a way that it could electrostatically steer cytochrome c in a reactive ensemble. The highly acidic and disordered N-terminus of QCR6p could interact with a patch of conserved lysine residues on cytochrome c. The role of subunit QCR6p has been assessed using QCR6p deleted cytochrome bc1 and a lysine variant of cytochrome c. The results show that QCR6p not only affects the kinetics of the interaction but is also important for the stability of cytochrome bc1. The kinetic and thermodynamic data obtained during this study provide evidence for the functional importance of non-catalytic cytochrome bc1 subunit QCR6p, show that the entropy driven interaction is indeed of low affinity and highly transient in nature and indicate that the interface is well suited to ensure the high turnover of the electron transfer chain where cytochrome c interacts with multiple partners using overlapping interfaces. The suggested role of the cation-! interaction as a highly specific interaction has been validated.
By translocating proteasomal degradation products into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) for loading of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, the ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) plays a pivotal role in the adaptive immunity against infected or malignantly transformed cells. A key question regarding the transport mechanism is how the inter-domain communication and conformational dynamics of the TAP complex are connected during the peptide transport. To identify residues involved in this processes, we evolved a Trojan horse strategy in which a small artificial protease is inserted into antigenic epitopes. After binding, the TAP backbone in contact is cleaved, allowing the peptide sensor site to be mapped by mass spectrometry. Within this study, the peptide sensor and transmission interface have been identified. This region aligns with the cytosolic loop 1 (CL1) of Sav1866 and MsbA. Based on a number of experimental data and the homology to the bacterial ABC exporter Sav1866, we constructed a 3D structural model of the core TAP complex. According to this model, the CL1 and CL2 of TAP1 are extended cytosolic loops connecting the transmembrane helices (TMH) 2 and 3, and TMH4 and 5 respectively, and contact both nucleotide binding domains (NBDs) of the opposite subunit. In contrast to exporters, the cytosolic loop (named L-loop) of BtuCD importer is much shorter, and contacts only one NBD. The data confirm that the CL1 of TAP1 functions as signal transducer in ABC exporters, because it does not interfere with substrate binding but with substrate transport. The peptide contact site identified herein is restructured during the ATP hydrolysis cycle. Importantly, TAP showed a structural change trapped in the ATP hydrolysis transition state, because direct contact between peptide and CL1 is abolished. By cysteine scanning, the most conserved residues within CL1 were identified, which disrupted the tight coupling between peptide binding and transport. Together with Val-288, these residues are essential in sensing the bound peptide and inter-domain signal transmission. To characterize the molecular architecture of CL1, a convenient and minimally perturbing approach was used, which combined cysteine substitution in the CL1 region and determination of accessibility to thiol specific compounds with different properties. These studies revealed that the N-terminal region of CL1 has a good accessibility for hydrophilic (iodoacetamidofluorescein, IAF) and amphiphilic probes (BODIPY maleimide, BM), whereas the C-terminal region is accessible for hydrophobic probe (coumarin maleimide, CM). Kinetic studies of fluorescence labeling suggest that this region displayed a different accessibility to probes when the protein undergoes distinct conformations (e. g. nucleotide free state), thereby reflecting conformational transitions. Fluorescence labeling with BM induces a lost of peptide transport, whereas the peptide binding remains unaffected. These results indicate that covalent modifications of the CL1 residues influenced the inter-domain communication between transmembrane domain (TMD) and NBD. The X-loop is a recently discovered motif in the NBD of ABC exporters, which stays in close contact to the CLs. Moreover, because the X-loop precedes the ABC signature motif, it probably responds to ATP binding and hydrolysis and may transmit conformational changes to the CLs. By substitution of the highly conserved Glu-602 of TAP2 with residues that have different chemical properties, it was shown for the first time that the X-loop is a functional important element, which plays an key role in coupling substrate binding to downstream events in the transport cycle. We further verified domain swapping in the TAP complex by cysteine cross-linking. The TAP complex can be reversibly arrested either in a binding or translocation incompetent state by cross-linking of the X-loop to CL1 or CL2, respectively. These results resolve the structural arrangement of the transmission interface and point to different functions of the cytosolic loops in substrate recognition, signaling and transport.
The cytochrome bc1 complex is a cornerstone in bioenergetic electron transfer chains, where it carries out tasks as diverse as respiration, photosynthesis, and nitrogen fixation. This homodimeric multisubunit membrane protein has been studied extensively for several decades and the enzyme mechanism is described with the modified protonmotive Q cycle. Still, the molecular and kinetic description of the catalytic cycle is not complete and questions remain regarding the bifurcation of electron transfer at the quinol oxidation (Qo) site, substrate occupancy, pathways of proton conduction, and the nature of the Rieske protein domain movement. We used competitive inhibitors to study the molecular architecture at the Qo site with X-ray crystallography. The structure of the enzyme with the substrate analog 5-n-heptyl-6-hydroxy-4,7-dioxobenzothiazole (HHDBT) bound at the Qo site was determined at 2.5 Å resolution. Spectroscopic studies showed that HHDBT is negatively charged when bound at the active site. Mechanistic interpretations from inhibitor binding are in line with single occupancy model for quinol oxidation and structural analysis supports the proposed proton transfer pathway. For functional insight into the enzyme mechanism, redox-sensitive protonation changes were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The protein purification procedure was optimized for less delipidation and the isolated enzyme was more active. Furthermore, two new phospholipids were identified in the X-ray structures, including a cardiolipin. Strikingly, conserved lipid binding cavities were observed in structural comparison with homologous enzymes. The functional role of tightly bound phospholipids will be discussed. Finally, the Qo site is a target for various compounds of agricultural and pharmaceutical importance. Importantly, the X-ray structures permit detailed analysis of the molecular reasons for acquired resistance to and treatment failure of Qo site inhibitors, such as atovaquone, that is used to treat malaria and pneumonia, as discussed herein.
In this study we investigated the regulation of IL-18BPa by IFN-y in the context of colon cancer and human autoimmune diseases. IL-18BPa is a naturally occuring inhibitor that counteracts IL-18 bioactivity. By enhancing IFN-y production IL-18 has been introduced as pivotal mediator of TH1 immune responses. Indeed, many IL-18 effects are mediated by IFN-y. IL-18 bioactivity is connected with the pathogenesis of different inflammatory diseases, for instance, septic shock, colitis, Crohn's disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and organ transplant rejection. In addition, IL-18 has tumor-suppressive properties. IFN-y induced IL-18BPa expression was shown on protein and mRNA level in different colon carcinoma cell lines, organ cultures of colonic intestinal biopsy specimens, HaCaT keratinocytes as well as rheumatoid arthritis fibroblastlike synoviocytes (RA-FLS). The IFN-y-mediated induction of IL-18BPa appears to be a more general phenomenom. The capability of IFN-y to induce IL-18BPa also has been confirmed on the promoter level by performing luciferase reporter gene studies with two IL- 18BP promoter fragments. A GAS-site proximal to the transcription start site has been identified to be relevant for IFN-y-mediated induction of these two IL18BP promoter fragments. The induction of IL-18BPa is most likely mediated by STAT-1 in DLD-1 colon carcinoma cells. Sodium butyrate inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression in these cells. On the basis of our observations, we postulate a negative feedback mechanism, by which IFN-y-dependent and -independent IL-18 action might be counterregulated. In this model sodium butyrate is an additional player, that may interrupt the postulated negative feedback loop. A coculture system was performed to simulate an inflammatory TH1 response. This model which is more close to the in vivo situation, confirmed upregulation of IL-18BPa by endogenously produced IFN-y. The role of IL-18BPa is manifold and depends on IL-18 function in each particular case. In autoimmune diseases, for instance, which are often characterized by a TH1 polarized immune response, IL-18BPa might counterregulate IL-18 and/or IL-18-induced IFN-y bioactivity. Important examples are Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis. In CD therapeutic use of IL-18BPa may therefore restore a hypothetically disturbed IL-18/IL-18BP balance. Concerning RA, IL-18BPa expression might contribute to protective functions of IFN-y, observed in different murine models for arthritis and in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Moreover, IL-18BPa might inhibit IL-18-mediated induction of subsequent cardinal inflammatory cytokines responsible for the pathogenesis of these diseases. Indeed, the pharmaceutical industry successfully used IL-18BP as therapeutic agent in a murine model of RA and in phase I clinical trials. On the contrary, in the context of carcinogenesis IFN-y- mediated IL-18BPa expression might be disadvantageous. By counterregulating the IL-18 arm of immune defenses against tumors, IL-18BP may have the potential to promote carcinogenesis. Our hypothesis is underlined by the observation that sodium butyrate, known to be protective in colon cancer, inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression. In parallel, IL-18-induced IFN-y is also responsible for iNOS induction. iNOS-derived NO provides a second possible way for inhibition of IFN-y-dependent and -independent tumor suppressive effects of IL-18. Finally, IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression was confirmed on the promoter level. This induction on the promoter level was associated with STAT-1 binding to the GAS element proximal to the start of transcription. It is tempting to speculate that blockage of the cytokine cascade upstream of IL-1 and TNF- a on the level of IL-18 may be of therapeutic benefit. Our data reflect the relationship between inflammation and cancer, in that inflammatory cells and cytokines found in tumors are likely to contribute to tumor growth, progression, and immunosuppression than they are to mount an effective host antitumour response.
Presentation of intracellular processed antigens by major histocompatibility (MHC) class I molecules to CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes is mediated by the macromolecular peptide loading complex (PLC). In particular accessory proteins, including the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) and tapasin, play a pivotal role in the MHC class I mediated antigen presentation pathway. TAP belongs to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and consists of TAP1 (ABCB2) and TAP2 (ABCB3), each of which possesses a transmembrane and a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). The ER-resident glycoprotein tapasin promotes the optimal folding and assembly of MHC-peptide complexes, and independently stabilizes the steady state expression level of TAP. In the present thesis recombinant Fv, scFv and Fab antibody fragments to human TAP from a hybridoma cell line expressing the TAP1-specific monoclonal antibody mAb148.3, were generated. The epitope of the mAb148.3 was mapped to the very last five C-terminal amino acid residues of TAP1 on solid-supported peptide arrays. The recombinant antibody fragments were heterologously expressed in E. coli and insect cells, and purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography. The monoclonal and recombinant antibodies display nanomolar affinity to the last five C-terminal amino acid residues of TAP1 as demonstrated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Surprisingly, the recombinant antibody fragments confer thermal stability to the heterodimeric TAP complex in insect cells when incubated at elevated temperature. At the same time, TAP is arrested in a peptide transport incompetent conformation, although ATP and peptide binding to TAP are not affected. Furthermore, the recombinant antibodies were successfully used in the purification of the PLC from a human B-lymphoblastoid cell line and a novel factor, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), was identified by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionisation-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). In the second part of this thesis the tapasin-MHC class I interaction was investigated. It is for this reason, that an in vitro assay had been established for direct measuring tapasin-MHC class I interactions. First, soluble single chain MHC class I molecules were engineered, choosing two MHC class I alleles: HLA-B4402 representing a highly tapasin-dependent allele and with HLA-B4405, a tapasin-independent allele was chosen. Tapasin as well as the two single chain MHC class I constructs, scB4402-b2m and scB4405-b2m, were expressed in insect cells and purified from insect cell supernatants by affinity chromatography. In contrast to the HLA-B4405 allele, which was expressed and secreted at moderate yield, the HLA-B4402 allele was expressed and trapped inside the insect cells instead of secreted into the medium. Peptide-binding and anisotropy measurements with fluorescein-labeled peptides verified the functionality of the scB4405-b2m. For further investigation of the tapasin-MHC class I interaction an in vitro assay was established using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Due to the transient nature of the interaction including the decreased affinity of both interaction partners, kinetic data acquisition was difficult to evaluate. Furthermore, interaction of the scB4405-b2m with the sensor surface itself contributed to the measured interaction. Additionally, to investigate tapasin editing function, tapasin as well as the scB4405-b2m-peptide complex were tethered on fluid chelator lipid bilayers and monitored by reflectance interference (RIf) and total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy (TIRFS). Stable immobilization of scB4405-b2m-peptide complex as well as of tapasin was observed, unfortunately no changes in peptide dissociation kinetics monitored in the TIRFS channel were detected. Presumably, the tapasin-independent HLA-B4405 already loaded with a high affinity peptide is not influenced by the peptide-editing function of tapasin. Here, for the first time an in vitro assay was established for direct probing interactions within the various proteins of the PLC.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest membrane protein family and play an essential role in signal transduction through the cell membrane. They are currently the targets of approximately 50 % of the pharmaceuticals on the market (Klabunde and Hessler, 2002). However, only one high-resolution GPCR structure has been determined up to now, that of bovine rhodopsin (Palczewski et al., 2000). The GPCR activation and regulation mechanisms are still unknown and other GPCR structures are thus required. MePNet (Membrane Protein Network) was a European consortium dedicated to structural studies of GPCRs. The approach was to produce 100 GPCRs in three expression systems (Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and Semliki Forest Virus infected mammalian cells) in order to select at each step of the process (production, solubilization, purification) the constructs that fulfilled quantity and quality (functionality) requirements for crystallization trials. In our team, we screened 38 of the 100 targets in P. pastoris. For each receptor, the clone with the highest production level was identified by dot-blot. The size and homogeneity of each receptor were then analyzed by Western-blot. The human adenosine A2A receptor showed a well-defined and pronounced single band and was thus selected for further characterization. The adenosine A2A receptor is a GPCR mainly localized in the central nervous system and, as it antagonizes dopaminergic activity, it has great potential as a drug target for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Functional characterization by binding assays with the specific antagonist [3H]-ZM241385 demonstrated a Bmax of 56 +/- 3 pmol/mg i.e. pmol of binder per milligram of total membrane protein, and a KD of 0.40 +/- 0.02 nM. Receptor production was then improved by lowering the induction temperature, decreasing the induction time and adding DMSO to the medium. For large-scale production, fermention reached around 300 g cells (wet weight)/L culture, which provided 43 mg of functional receptor in membranes per liter of culture. Functional solubilization was achieved with dodecyl-β-D-maltoside and the soluble yield was increased to 70-80 % of the membrane content by addition of cholesteryl hemisuccinate and increasing the ionic strength. The receptor was successfully purified via Ni-NTA and monomeric avidin chromatography in the presence of the antagonist ZM241385. This strategy produced a pure, homogeneous and stable receptor preparation with functionality demonstrated by radioligand binding assays. The total receptor yield after purification was routinely around 20 % of the membrane functional receptor content and 2 g of membranes provided 4 mg of pure receptor for crystallization trials. GPCRs are very difficult targets for crystallization, and co-crystallization with antibody fragments has been shown to be a successful method for crystallization of membrane proteins. In order to develop such a tool for the adenosine A2A receptor, a single-chain Fv (scFv) fragment specific to the purified receptor was selected by phage display. The receptor was functionally immobilized on the surface of streptavidin beads and after two rounds of selection, 6 different phages were identified several times. After production in E. coli and purification via Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, 4 out of the 6 scFv fragments were sufficiently enriched to be tested by ELISA. For the ELISA, the receptor was functionally immobilized via the biotinylation domain of the construct in a 96-well streptavidin-coated plate. The antibody fragments binding to the receptor were identified based on interaction with HRP-conjugated protein L. One scFv fragment gave a positive ELISA signal 10 fold above background and titration of the scFv fragment binding to the receptor was specific and saturable. However no complex of scFv fragment and receptor was observed on gel filtration. In order to have a more sensitive detection method, the scFv fragment was labeled with fluorescein: a complex was then observed up on gel filtration but the binding appeared to be non-specific. A pull-down assay with immobilized non-labeled scFv fragment finally confirmed the specificity of the binding, but also the low affinity of the interaction. Affinity maturation of this specific scFv fragment by a random mutagenesis and selection process should improve this parameter in order to obtain an adapted tool for co-crystallization.
1. Halobacillus halophilus akkumuliert zum Ausgleich geringer, extrazellulärer Wasserpotentiale kompatible Solute. Bei Anzuchten in Gegenwart von 0,4 – 1,5 M NaCl wurden Glutamin und Glutamat als die dominierenden kompatiblen Solute identifiziert, während zwischen 2,0 und 3,0 M NaCl Prolin das dominierende Solut darstellt. Außerdem wurde Ectoin als zweites kompatibles Solut gefunden, das spezifisch bei hohen Salzgehalten akumuliert wird. Die Konzentrationen während der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase war jedoch um den Faktor 6 – 7 geringer im Vergleich zu Prolin. 2. Aus Wachstumsexperimenten in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Anionen war bekannt, dass Glutamat, im Gegensatz zu Gluconat und Nitrat, in der Lage ist, das Wachstum von H. halophilus auch in Abwesenheit von Chlorid zu ermöglichen. Um der Frage nachzugehen, ob die wachstumsfördernde Wirkung von unphysiologisch hohen Glutamat-Konzentrationen im Medium auf die Verwendung von Glutamat als kompatiblem Solut in den Zellen zurückzuführen ist, wurden Gesamtsolutepools von Chlorid-, Nitrat-, Gluconat- und Glutamat-gezogenen Zellen gemessen. In NaCl-gezogenen Zellen zeigte sich Glutamat als dominantes Solut, während Prolin und Glutamin einen geringeren Teil am Gesamtpool ausmachten. In Nitrat-gezogenen Zellen betrug der Gesamtpool nur noch 83% und in Gluconat-gezogenen Zellen nur noch 27% im Vergleich zu Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen. Zellen, die mit Glutamat gezogen wurden, zeigten jedoch eine Gesamtkonzentration an Soluten, die ca. 100% über dem Vergleichswert aus Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen lag. Die Konzentration an Glutamin in den Zellen stieg dabei um 168%, die Konzentration an Glutamat sogar um 299%. Die Prolinkonzentration verringerte sich um 32%. Diese Daten belegen, dass der wachstumsstimulierende Effekt von Glutamat auf die Verwendung als kompatibles Solut zurückzuführen ist. 3. Zur Untersuchung der molekularen Grundlage der Salzadaptation sowie der Abhängigkeit von Chlorid in H. halophilus wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Gruppe von Prof. D. Oesterhelt (MPI für Biochemie, Martinsried) die Sequenzierung des Genoms begonnen. Das Projekt ist zur Zeit noch nicht abgeschlossen und befindet sich in der „Lückenschluß-Phase“. Die bisherigen Sequenzdaten konnten dennoch für die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen Untersuchungen herangezogen werden. Das Genom besitzt eine Größe von ca. 4,1 Mbp mit einem ungefähren GC-Gehalt von 40%. Außerdem wurden 2 Plasmide identifiziert mit einer Größe von 16047 und 3329 bp. 4. Die Schlüsselgene bekannter Biosynthesewege für Glutamin und Glutamat konnten identifiziert werden. Darunter befinden sich zwei Isogene für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase (gdh1 und gdh2), ein Gen für die große Untereinheit einer Glutamatsynthase (gltA), zwei Gene für die kleine Untereinheit einer Glutamat-Synthase (gltB1 und gltB2) und zwei Isogene für eine Glutaminsynthetase (glnA1 und glnA2). glnA1 befindet sich in einem Cluster zusammen mit einem Gen, das für einen Regulator kodiert (glnR), wie er auch aus B. subtilis bekannt ist. Über reverse Transkription von mRNA und anschließender PCR-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl gltA/gltB1 als auch glnA1/glnR in einem Operon organisiert sind. 5. Wurde die Transkriptmenge der in Punkt 4 erwähnten Biosynthesegene in Zellen quantifiziert, die in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Salzkonzentrationen (0,4 – 3,0 M NaCl) gezogen wurden, so zeigte sich keine Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration für die Gene gltA, glnA1 und gdh1. Über die Transkriptmengen von gdh2 ließ sich keine abschließende Aussage treffen, da die gefundenen Transkriptmengen sehr gering waren und daher zu sehr großen Varianzen bei der Quantifizierung führten. Eine klare Abhängigkeit der Transkriptmenge von der im Medium zugesetzten Salzkonzentration konnte für glnA2 gezeigt werden. Die glnA2 mRNA-Menge stieg dabei mit steigender Salzkonzentration an und erreichte bei 1,5 – 2.0 M NaCl ein Maximum. Bei diesen Salzkonzentrationen war die Menge an mRNA ca. 4 mal höher als der Vergleichswert bei 0,4 M NaCl. Bei höhern Salzkonzentrationen sank die Menge an Transkript wieder leicht und war dann ca. nur noch 3 mal so hoch wie bei 0,4 M NaCl. 6. Die zelluläre Konzentration der glnA2-Transkripte in Abhängigkeit unterschiedlicher Anionen im Anzuchtmedium wurde untersucht. Die Quantifizierung der glnA2–mRNA ergab eine 2 mal höhere Transkriptmenge in Gegenwart von Chlorid verglichen mit Nitrat oder Gluconat. 7. Es wurde nach Enzymaktivitäten der bekannten Schlüsselenzyme im Glutamat und Glutamin-Biosyntheseweg gesucht. Eine Glutamatdehydrogenase und eine Glutamatsynthase – Aktivität konnte nicht oder nur in vernachlässigbarem Maße nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu konnt eine Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität eindeutig belegt werden. Diese Aktivität erwies sich abhängig von der Art und der Konzentration des angebotenen Anions im Medium. Maximale Aktivitäten wurden mit NaCl in einer Konzentration von 2,5 – 3,0 M erreicht. Interessanterweise erwies sich die Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität auch abhängig von der Art des im Testpuffers verwendeten Anions. Hier zeigte sich eine deutliche Stimulierung der Aktivität durch das Anion Chlorid. [Die für diesen Punkt zugrunde liegenden Daten wurden im Rahmen einer von mir mitbetreuten Diplomarbeit von Jasmin F. Sydow erhoben und sind aus Gründen der vollständigen Darstellung des Projektverlaufes mitaufgeführt!] 8. Wie im Punkt 1 dargelegt, wird Prolin vor allem bei hohen Salzkonzentrationen in H. halophilus - Zellen akkumuliert. Neben der Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration wurde außerdem die Abhängigkeit von der Wachstumsphase untersucht. Die Analyse der Prolinkonzentrationen während verschiedener Wachstumsphasen in Kulturen, die bei 1,0 bzw. 2,5 M NaCl angezogen wurden, zeigte, (i) dass die Prolinkonzentration während der frühen exponentiellen Phase ca. 2,5-fach erhöht war im Vergleich zu Niedrigsalz-Zellen, (ii) dass die Prolinkonzentration beim Übergang von der frühen in die späte exponentielle Phase dramatisch abnahm (um 64% bei 2,5 M NaCl) und dass (iii) in der stationären Phase Prolin praktisch nicht mehr nachzuweisen war. 9. Die Biosynthesegene für die Herstellung von Prolin aus Glutamat konnten im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert werden. Es handelt sich dabei um ein Cluster von 3 Genen, die für eine putative Pyrrolin-5-carboxylatreductase (proH), eine Glutamat-5-kinase (proJ), und eine Glutamat-5-semialdehyd-dehydrogenase (proA) kodieren. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 10. Eine Quantifizierung der Transkriptmengen der Biosynthesegene proH, proJ und proA mittels quantitativer PCR in Zellen, die bei unterschiedlichen NaCl-Konzentrationen gezogen wurden, zeigte einen deutlichen Zusammenhang zwischen der Salinität des Mediums und der Menge an Transkript. Diese war umso höher, je höher die Salinität des Mediums war. Die maximale Transkriptmenge (6-fach) wurde bei einer Salzkonzentration von 2,5 M NaCl erreicht. Bei noch höherer Salzkonzentration sank die Transkriptmenge auf die ca. 5-fache Menge des Kontrollwertes ab. 11. Um die Regulation und Dynamik der Osmoregulation unabhängig vom Wachstum untersuchen zu können, wurde ein Zellsuspensions-System für H. halophilus etabliert, bei dem eine konzentrierte Zellsuspension direkt von geringen auf hohe Salzkonzentrationen überführt wurde und bei dem die Prozesse der Transkription, Translation und Solut-Biosynthese erhalten blieben. Beispielhaft wurde dieses System an der Produktion von Prolin nach einem Salzschock von 0,8 auf 2,0 M NaCl getestet. Es zeigte sich bei der Analyse, dass sich die Transkriptmengen unmittelbar nach dem Salzschock deutlich erhöhten und bereits nach 1,5 Stunden ein Maximum erreicht wurde. Verglichen mit dem Wert zu Beginn des Versuches waren die Transkriptmengen ca. 13-fach erhöht, sanken im weiteren Verlauf jedoch wieder ab und blieben bei einer 4-fachen Transkriptmenge konstant. Mit der Erhöhung der Transkriptmenge ging auch eine Erhöhung der Prolinkonzentration einher, die ein Maximum von ca. 6 μmol/mg Protein nach 6 Stunden erreichte. Auch diese Konzentration verringerte sich im weiteren Verlauf wieder und erreichte nach 20 Stunden den Ausgangswert. 12. Um den Einfluß diverser Anionen bzw. Osmolyte im Medium auf die Produktion von Prolin zu untersuchen, wurden Zellsuspensionen von H. halophilus einer Erhöhung der Osmolarität von 0,8 M auf 2,0 M unterzogen. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass die maximale Akkumulation von Prolin in Anwesenheit von Chlorid am höchsten war. Nitrat und Glutamat führten zu ähnlichen, aber leicht geringeren maximalen Konzentrationen (92 bzw. 83% des Chloridwertes). Gluconat führte noch zu einer Akkumulation von ca. 51%, während die anderen Osmolyte zu keiner Akkumulation führten. Eine Analyse der Transkriptmengen zeigte jedoch ein völlig anderes Bild. Während Chlorid, Nitrat und Gluconat zu vergleichbaren Anstiegen der Transkripmengen führten, war die maximale Transkriptmenge der Glutamatinkubierten Zellen 3-9 mal höher als in Vergleichszellen mit Chlorid. In anschließenden Titrationsexperimenten mit verschiedenen Glutamatkonzentrationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine minimale Konzentration von 0,2 M Glutamat ausreichend ist, um eine 90-fache Steigerung der Transkriptmenge herbeizuführen. 13. Als Antwort auf Hochsalz-Bedingungen akkumuliert H. halophilus neben Prolin auch Ectoin. Die Ectoinkonzentration bei 2,5 M NaCl war ca. 2-3 mal höher als in Zellen, die bei 1,0 M gezogen wurden. Die Bestimmung der intrazellulären Ectoin-Konzentrationen während des Wachstums zeigte außerdem, dass die Produktion von Ectoin wachstumsphasenabhängig ist. Die Konzentration in der stationären Phase war ca. 5-fach höher als in der exponentiellen Phase. Die Entwicklung der Ectoin- Konzentration verhielt sich somit reziprok zur Entwicklung der Prolin-Konzentration während des Wachstums. 14. Es wurde ein Cluster von drei Genen im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert, deren Genprodukte die Biosynthese von Ectoin aus Aspartatsemialdehyd katalysieren. ectA kodiert dabei für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-Acetyltransferase, ectB für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-2-oxoglutarat-Transaminase und ectC für eine putative Ectoin-Synthase. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 15. Die Transkription der ect-Gene war abhängig von der Salinität des Mediums. Ab 2,0 M stieg die Menge an RNA um das 10-fache an und erreichte bei 3,0 M ein Maximum mit der 23,5-fachen Menge. 16. Nach einem osmotischen Schock stieg die Konzentration an ect-mRNA signifikant und erreichte ein Maximum nach 3 - 4 Stunden. Das Maximum wurde somit 1,5 – 2,5 Stunden später erreicht als bei anderen Genen der Solute-Biosynthese wie etwa gdh1, das für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase, glnA2, das für eine Glutamin-Synthetase oder proH, das für eine Pyrrolin-5-Carboxylase kodiert. Die maximal erreichten Wert lagen 13-fach (ectA), 6,5-fach (ectB) und 3-fach (ectC) über dem Wert vor dem Salzschock. Gegen EctC wurden polyklonale Antikörper generiert. Western-Blot Analysen mit diesem Antikörper zeigten, dass die EctC-Menge nach 4 Stunden um das 2,5-fache stieg, dann aber wieder abfiel auf das 1,6 – 1,7-fache des Ausgangswertes. Der Rückgang an EctC fand keine Entsprechung in der gemessenen Ectoin-Konzentration, welche über einen Zeitraum von 18 Stunden kontinuierlich anstieg. Die maximale Konzentration nach 18 Stunden betrug das ca. 6,3-fache des Ausgangswertes. 17. Wurden H. halophilus Zellen mit anderen Osmolyten außer NaCl geschockt, so ergab sich folgendes Bild der Regulation der Ectoin-Biosynthese: (i) die Transkription der ect-Gene zeigte keine Chlorid-abhängige Regulation. Die maximale Transkriptmenge wurde in Gegenwart von Nitrat erreicht, wohingegen Gluconat zu vergleichbachen mRNA-Mengen führte wie Chlorid. Glutamat führte nur zu schwacher Stimulierung der Transkription. (ii) auf Ebene der Proteinmenge war zu sehen, dass die Menge an EctC nach osmotischem Schock vergleichbar war in Zellen, die mit Chlorid oder Nitrat inkubiert wurden. Gluconat führte nur zu einer 40%-igen Zunahme während andere Osmolyte nahezu wirkungslos auf die Menge an EctC blieben. (iii) die höchste Akkumulation an Ectoin nach einer plötzlichen Erhöhung der Osmolarität wurde erreicht mit Chlorid (6-fache Zunahme) gefolgt von Nitrat (5,6-fache Zunahme). Gluconat führte lediglich zu einer 3,3-fachen und Glutamat nur noch zu einer 2-fachen Steigerung der Ectoinkonzentration. Glutamat hat somit ähnliche Effekte wie Tartrat, Saccharose oder Sulfat. Succinat führte zu keiner Akkumulation und Glycin sogar zu einer deutlichen Abnahme. Die Produktion von Ectoin ist somit hauptsächlich abhängig vom Anion/Osmolyt und nur untergeordnet von der Osmolarität.
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.