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Disturbances in lipid metabolism are responsible for many chronic disorders, such as type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis. Regulation of lipid metabolism occurs by activated transcription factors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) and liver X receptor α (LXRα) mediating transcription of different target genes involved in regulation of fatty acid uptake and oxidation or cellular cholesterol homeostasis. This is especially relevant for the macrophages, since pathways regulated by PPARδ and LXRα affect foam cell formation, a process driving the progression of atherosclerotic lesion. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) plays a central role in energy homeostasis in every type of eukaryotic cell, but its role in human macrophages, particularly with regard to lipid metabolism, is not precisely defined yet. Thus, I investigated the impact of AMPK activity on PPARδ and LXRα and the expression of their target genes involved in fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and cholesterol metabolism.
As PPARδ has been described as a potential target for prevention and treatment of several disorders and AMPK as interesting drug target for diabetes and metabolic syndrome, the aim of the first part of my studies was to investigate their interaction in primary human macrophages. Completing the first challenge successfully, I was able to establish a lentiviral transduction system for constitutively active AMPK (consisting of a truncated catalytic AMPKα1 subunit bearing an activating T198D mutation) in primary human macrophages.
Using genome-wide microarray analysis of gene expression, I demonstrate FAO as the strongest affected pathway during combined AMPKα1 overexpression and PPARδ activation.
The most influenced genes were validated by quantitative PCR as well as by Western analysis. I found that AMPK increases the expression of FAO-associated genes targeted by PPARδ. Corroborating the results obtained using AMPKα1 overexpression, PPARδ target gene expression was increased not only by PPARδ agonist GW501516, but also by pharmacological allosteric AMPK activator A-769662. Additional enhancement of target gene mRNA expression was achieved upon co-activation of PPARδ and AMPK. Silencing PPARδ expression increased basal expression of target genes, confirming the repressive nature of ligand-free PPARδ, abolishing the increased target gene expression upon AMPK or PPARδ activation. Measurements of triglyceride contents of human macrophages incubated with VLDL following PPARδ activation demonstrated a reduction of intracellular triglyceride accumulation in cells, which may reflect the enhancement of fat catabolism.
In the second part of my studies, I concentrated on the regulation of cholesterol transporter ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) expression by AMPK. ABCA1 facilitates
cholesterol efflux from macrophages thus, preventing atherosclerosis progression. For the first time, AMPK implication in the regulation of the ABCA1 pathway could be presented. Both AMPK overexpression and activation lead to significantly increased ABCA1 expression, whereas AMPKα1 knock-down strongly reduced this effect. Besides, I was able to prove an enhanced activity of ABCA1 during AMPK activation in human THP-1 macrophages by measuring cholesterol efflux into apolipoprotein AI-containing medium.
Previous findings showed regulation of ABCA1 by LXRα. I confirmed these results by silencing experiments indicating an essential role of LXRα in ABCA1 regulation pathway.
Here, ABCA1 mRNA as well as protein expression were positively mediated by LXRα. LXRα activation elevated ABCA1 levels, whereas its silencing down-regulated this effect.
Interestingly, ABCA1 was found to be regulated only by LXRα and not through LXRα. At the same time, knock-down of PPARδ, -γ or -δ, which may be also involved in the regulation of LXR/ABCA1 axis, did not influence the activation of ABCA1 expression by an AMPK activator. To confirm that LXRE on Abca1 promoter is essential for ABCA1 regulation, I performed luciferase reporter assay using constructs based on Abca1 promoter with or without LXRE mutation. Mutation of LXRE abolished reporter activity, whereas AMPK activation increased luciferase activity of wild-type LXRE construct. Furthermore, I demonstrate AMPK-dependent LXRα binding to the LXRE site of Abca1 promoter using the method of chromatin immunoprecipitation. AMPK activation significantly increased, whereas silencing of AMPK significantly attenuated LXRα binding, indicating AMPK as one of the most important regulators of ABCA1 expression.
In summary, I provided an evidence for AMPK involvement into lipid and cholesterol metabolism in human macrophages showing the regulation of PPARδ and LXRα target genes. The understanding of AMPK and PPARδ interaction allows the development of new approaches for treatment of metabolic syndrome and related diseases. Increased FAO during the activation of both proteins may exhibit better therapeutic benefit. On the other hand, I have shown the impact of AMPK activation on ABCA1 via LXRα up-regulation leading to increased cholesterol efflux in human macrophages for the first time. These findings thus may impact future improving of anti-atherosclerosis therapies.
The tumor suppressor programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4) exerts its function by inhibiting protein translation initiation. Specifically, it displaces the scaffold protein eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) from its binding to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). Thereby, Pdcd4 inhibits the helicase activity of eIF4A, which is necessary for the unwinding of highly structured 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often found in oncogenes like c-myc to make them accessible for the translation machinery and subsequent protein production. Overexpression of Pdcd4 inhibits tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo and inversely, Pdcd4 knockout mice show enhanced tumor formation. In line, Pdcd4 is lost in various tumor types and proposed as prognostic factor in colon carcinomas. Unlike most other tumor suppressors that are rendered nonfunctional by mutations (e.g., p53), Pdcd4 loss is not attributable to mutational inactivation. It is regulated via translational repression by microRNAs and increased degradation of the protein under tumor promoting, inflammatory conditions and mitogens. Specifically, proteasomal degradation of Pdcd4 is controlled by p70 S6 Kinase (p70S6K)-mediated phosphorylation in its degron sequence (serines 67, 71 and 76). Stimulation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by growth factors, hormones and cytokines initiates p70S6K activity. Phosphorylated Pdcd4 is subsequently recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase beta-transducin repeats-containing protein (β-TrCP) and marked with a polyubiquitin tail to be detected by the 26S proteasome for degradation. β-TrCP represents the substrate specific recognition subunit of the ubiquitin ligase complex responsible for protein-protein interaction with Pdcd4 as substrate for ubiquitin transfer and subsequent proteasomal disassembly.
The first part of the present work aimed at identifying novel stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4 in a high throughput screen (HTS). As assay design, a fragment of Pdcd4 from amino acid 39 to 91, containing the phosphorylation sensitive degron sequence, was fused to a luciferase reporter gene construct. Stable expression of this Pdcd4(39-91)luciferase (Pdcd4(39-91)luc) fusion protein in HEK 293 cells served as read-out for the Pdcd4 protein amount to be detected in a high throughput compatible cell-based assay. Loss of Pdcd4(39-91)luc was induced by treatment with 12-O-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), a phorbolester, which activates the PI3K signaling cascade leading to degradation of Pdcd4. The cut-off for hit definition was set at >50% activity in rescuing the Pdcd4(39-91)luc signal from TPA-induced degradation. Activity was calculated relative to the difference of DMSO- and TPA-treated cells (ΔDMSO-TPA = RLUDMSO-RLUTPA). Initial screening of a protein kinase inhibitor library (PKI) revealed hit substances expected to show Pdcd4 stabilizing activity by inhibition of kinases involved in Pdcd4 downregulation, e.g., the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, the PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 and the PKC inhibitors GF 109203X and Ro 31-8220.
The Molecular Targets Laboratory (MTL) of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, USA, hosts one of the largest collections of crude natural product extracts as well as a big substance libraries from pure synthetic sources. Screening of over 15 000 pure compounds and over 135 000 natural product extracts identified 46 pure and 42 extract hits as Pdcd4 stabilizers. For nine synthetic and six natural product derived compounds (after bioassay-guided fractionation), dose-dependent activities for recovering the TPA-induced Pdcd4(39-91)luc loss defined IC50s in the low micromolar range. Most importantly, these compounds were confirmed to stabilize endogenous Pdcd4 protein levels from forced degradation as well. This result proved the assay design to be highly representative for endogenous cellular mechanisms regulating Pdcd4 protein stability. The next step was to stratify the hit substances according to their likely mechanism of action to be located either up- or downstream of the p70S6K-mediated phosphorylation of Pdcd4. Therefore, phosphorylation of S6, as proto-typical p70S6K target, was analyzed and uncovered two natural derived compounds to influence p70S6K activity. Four substances did not affect p70S6K phosphorylation activity and were therefore considered to stabilize Pdcd4 by acting downstream, i.e. on the β-TrCP-mediated proteasomal degradation.
In the second part of this work, one of these compounds, namely the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin, isolated by bioassay-guided fraction from the active extract of Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae, was further characterized in detail with respect to its molecular mechanism of action. Erioflorin dose-dependently protected both Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 protein from TPA-induced degradation with IC50s of 1.28 and 2.64 μM, respectively. Pdcd4 stabilizing activity was maximal at 5 μM erioflorin. Up to this concentration, erioflorin was verified not to inhibit p70S6K activity. In addition, it was observed that erioflorin rescued Pdcd4(39-91)luc from both, wild type and constitutively active p70S6K-mediated downregulation. Only wild type p70S6K was inhibitable by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin which served as an upstream acting control. To study the next section of Pdcd4 regulation, i.e. recognition by the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 were immunoprecipitated from whole cell extracts with the corresponding antibodies. In this key experiment, treatment with TPA increased overexpressed β-TrCP binding to both and this coimmunoprecipitation could be strongly reduced by erioflorin treatment. This result strongly pointed to an inhibitory mechanism of the β-TrCP specific binding to Pdcd4 by erioflorin. In addition, erioflorin disrupted the binding of in vitro transcribed/translated β-TrCP to Pdcd4 in an in vitro interaction assay to exclude nonspecific intracellular signals. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of Pdcd4 was decreased by erioflorin treatment as well. To clarify questions regarding specificity of erioflorin for the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, stability of another important β-TrCP target was explored, i.e. the tumor suppressor inhibitor of kappa B alpha (IκBα). Indeed, the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-mediated loss of IκBα could be prevented by erioflorin cotreatment. On the other hand, the E3 ubiquitin ligase von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL) was left unaffected as its target hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) could not be stabilized from oxygen-dependent degradation by erioflorin treatment. These results argued strongly for erioflorin being a specific inhibitor of β-TrCP-mediated protein degradation. Functional consequences of erioflorin treatment were investigated by observing its influence on the transcriptional activities of the transformation marker activator protein 1 (AP-1, an indirect downstream target of Pdcd4) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB which is directly inhibited by IκBα). Indeed, erioflorin showed significant inhibition of AP-1 and NF-κB reporter constructs at 5 μM, a concentration for which an impact on cell viability was excluded. Finally to characterize the significance of erioflorin in a cell-based tumorigenesis assay, the highly invasive colon carcinoma cell line RKO was tested in a two dimensional migration assay. Erioflorin was discovered to significantly lower cell migration in a wound closure assay.
In conclusion, development of a high throughput compatible cell-based reporter assay successfully identified novel substances from pure synthetic and natural product derived background as potent stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4. In addition, this work aimed at elucidating the detailed mechanism of action of the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin from Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae. Erioflorin was discovered to inhibit the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, thereby preventing protein degradation of tumor suppressors like Pdcd4 and IκBα. This may offer the possibility to more specifically target protein degradation and generate less adverse side effects by blocking a particular E3 ubiquitin ligase compared to general proteasome inhibition.
Tumor development usually follows predictable paths where tumor cells acquire common characteristics and features known as the hallmarks of cancer. Recently, additional characteristics have been added to these hallmarks since solid tumors are composed of a very heterogeneous population of transformed, formerly normal tissue cells and stromal cells, e.g. immune cells and fibroblasts. Compelling evidence suggests that stromal cells and tumor cells maintain a symbiotic relationship to build up the tumor microenvironment and to fuel tumor growth. In cancer therapies, common features of tumors such as unrestricted cell growth, suppression of immunological responses, and the ability to form new blood vessels (angiogenesis) have emerged as the main targets of interest. The lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is known to promote all these features and thus, is connected to cancer progression in general. Its synthesis is triggered in response to stress factors or during inflammation. Inducible PGE2 production relies on the enzymes cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostanglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1), which are simultaneously expressed in response to a variety of different stimuli and are functionally coupled. Inhibition of COX-2 with non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for cancer treatment is, however, limited by cardiovascular risks, since selective COX-2 inhibition disrupts the prostacyclin/thromboxane balance. Therefore targeting mPGES-1 downstream of COX-2 for PGE2 inhibition was evaluated in this work in different steps of carcinogenesis. Knockdown of mPGES-1 in DU145 prostate cancer cells revealed that the mPGES-1 status did not affect growth of monolayer tumor cells, but significantly impaired 3D growth of multi-cellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). Spheroid formation induced COX-2 in DU145 and other prostate cancer spheroids. High levels of PGE2 were detected in supernatants of DU145 MCTS as opposed to monolayer DU145 cells. Pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 and mPGES-1 confirmed the pivotal role of PGE2 for DU145 MCTS growth. Besides promoting spheroid growth, MCTS-derived PGE2 also inhibited cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. When investigating the mechanisms of COX-2 induction during spheroid formation, the typical tumor microenvironmental factors such as glucose deprivation, hypoxia or tumor cell apoptosis failed to enhance COX-2. Interestingly, when interfering with apoptosis in DU145 spheroids, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK triggered a Summary 12 shift towards necrosis, thus enhancing COX-2 expression. Coculturing viable DU145 monolayer cells with isolated heat-shocked-treated necrotic DU145 cells, but not with necrotic cell supernatants, induced COX-2 and PGE2, confirming the impact of necrosis for MCTS growth and CTL inhibition. As mentioned, in vivo tumors are very heterogenous mixtures of tumor cells and stromal cells e.g. immune cells. Hence, the interaction of the immune system with tumors was investigated in further experiments. When coculturing MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), only low levels of PGE2 were detected, since MCF-7 cells did not upregulate COX-2 during spheroid formation and did not induce PGE2 production by PBMCs. Under inflammatory conditions, by adding the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to cocultures, PGE2 production was triggered, spheroid sizes were reduced, and numbers of high levels of granzyme B expressing (GrBhi) CTLs were increased, while CD80 expression by tumor-associated phagocytes was also elevated. Inhibition of CD80 but not CD86 diminished numbers of GrBhi CTLs and attenuated spheroid lysis. To determine the role of ctivation-induced PGE2 production, use of the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib and the experimental mPGES-1 inhibitor C3 further increased CD80 expression. Addition of PGE2, the prostaglandin E2 (EP2) receptor agonist butaprost, and the phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor rolipram reduced LPS/C3-triggered CD80 expression, confirming the impact of COX- 2/mPGES-1-derived PGE2 on shaping phagocyte phenotypes in an EP2/cAMP-dependent manner. In a spontaneous breast cancer model (MMTV-PyMT), mPGES-1-deficiency significantly delayed tumor growth in mice, confirming an overall protumorigenic role of mPGES-1 in breast cancer development in vivo. However in tumors of mPGES-1-/- mice, tumor-infiltrating phagocytes expressed low levels of CD80 similar to their wildtype counterparts. These data suggest that the immunosuppressive microenvironment does not allow for immunostimulatory effects by mPGES-1 inhibition without an activating stimulus. Evidences in this study recommend the application of mPGES-1 inhibitors for treating cancer diseases, since mPGES-1 promotes tumor growth in multiple steps of carcinogenesis, ranging from well-characterized effects of tumor cell growth to immune suppression of CTL activity and phagocyte polarization. Regarding the latter, blunting PGE2 during immune activation may limit the tumor-favoring features of inflammation and improve the efficiency of TLR4 based immune therapies.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common malignant tumor and third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Most cases arise as a consequence of underlying liver disease, e.g. developed from chronic hepatitis B or C infectionsalcohol abuse or obesity, and are most often associated with liver cirrhosis. Hypoxiand the hypoxia inducible factors (HIF)-1α and -2α promote tumor progression of HCC, not only affecting tumor cell proliferation and invasion, but also angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis and thus, increasing the risk of metastasis.
HCC is characterized as one of the most vascularized solid tumors. While HIF-1α and HIF-2α are frequently up-regulated in HCC only HIF-2α is correlated with high patientlethality. HIF-dependent regulation of HCC angiogenesis is controversially discussed.VEGFA, for example, as the most prominent factor inducing tumor angiogenesis represents not only a HIF-1 target, but also a HIF-2 target gene in HCC. This questions whether both isoforms have overlapping functions in regulating the angiogenic switch in HCC.
Besides angiogenesis also tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis significantly influences patient survival in HCC. Lymphatic spread is an important clinical determinant for the prognosis of HCC, but little is known how lymphangiogenesis is controlled in this context. To date, mainly HIF-1α was positively correlated with olymphatic invasion and metastasis in HCC, while a defined role of HIF-2α is missing. Thus, although HIF-1α and HIF-2α are structurally alike and regulate overlapping but not identical sets of target genes, they promote highly divergent outcomes in cancer progression and may even have counteracting roles. The aim of my work was to characterize the specific role of HIF-1α and HIF-2α in the angiogenic switch and lymphangiogenesis induction during HCC development.
Therefore, I created a stable knockdown of HIF-1α and HIF-2α in HepG2 cells and generated cocultures of HepG2 spheroids and embryonic bodies derived from embryonic mouse stem cells as an in vitro tumor model mimicking the cancer microenvironment to analyze which HIF isoform has key regulatory functions in HCC (lymph)angiogenesis. In cocultures with a HIF-2α knockdown angiogenesis was attenuated but lymphangiogenesis increased, while the knockdown of HIF-1α was without effect. Microarray analysis identified plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1)and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) as HIF-2 target genes.However, prominent angiogenic and lymphangiogenic factors such as VEGFs, PDGFB, ANG and their receptors were not regulated in a HIF-dependent manner. As PAI-1 was linked to angiogenesis in literature and IGF-signaling, which is negatively regulated by IGFBP-1, was correlated with lymphangiogenesis, I decided to investigate their HIF-2α-dependent influence on HCC (lymph)angiogenesis. The knockdown of PAI-1 in HepG2 cells also lowered angiogenesis in PAI-1k/d cocultures similar to the HIF-2α k/d phenotype. PAI-1 as the potent inhibitor of tPA and uPA, both inducing the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, also inhibits plasmin directly. Therefore, I assumed an increase of plasmin in HIF-2α k/d and PAI-1 k/d cocultures as a result of the reduced PAI-1 levels. Blocking plasmin with aprotinin in HIF-2α k/d cocultures restored angioge nesis, suggesting that HIF-2α increases PAI-1 to lower concentrations of active plasmin, thereby supporting angiogenesis. In further experiments I could exclude PAI-1 to reduce angiogenesis by inducing plasmin-mediated apoptosis of differentiating stem cells in PAI-1 k/d and HIF-2α k/d cocultures, but demonstrated an increase of VEGFA165 degradation in these cocultures, suggesting plasmin-catalyzed proteolysis of VEGF as an additional layer of regulation required to explain the angiogenic phenotype. Besides the pivotal role of PAI-1 in angiogenesis I also investigated its potentialinfluence in lymphangiogenesis. Indeed, the knockdown of PAI-1 reduced lymphaticstructures and implied an important but opposing role in lymphangiogenesis comparedto induced lymphangiogenesis in HIF-2α k/d cocultures. However, blocking plasmin again with aprotinin in HIF-2α k/d cocultures restored lymphangiogenesis to the level of control virus, which indicates a divergent lymphangiogenic role of plasmin in PAI-1 k/d and HIF-2α k/d cocultures, possibly because of other essential pathways masking the lymphangiogenic effects of PAI-1 in HIF-2α k/d cocultures.
HIF-2α resulting in reduced IGFBP1 expression induced the differentiation of stem cells toward a lymphatic cell type and significantly enhanced the assembly of human dermal lymphatic endothelial cells into tubes. These data point the first time to an important impact of HIF-2 in the regulatin of lymphangiogenesis in vitro by inducing IGFBP1 and thus, scavenging IGF-1. Furthermore, matrigel plug assays to investigate the in vivorelevance of these observations confirmed HIF-2α as a crucial factor in the regulation of lymphangiogenesis in vivo
In conclusion, this work provides evidence that HIF-2α is a key regulator of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in HCC by regulating PAI-1 and IGFBP1. HIF-2α positively influences the angiogenic switch via PAI-1 and negatively affects lymphangiogenesis via IGFBP1 expression. Targeting HIF-2α in HCC to reduce tumor angiogenesis should be approached carefully, as it might be overcome by induced lymphangiogenesis and metastasis.
In the absence of apparent mutations, alteration of gene expression patterns represents the key mechanism by which normal cells evolve to cancer cells.
Gene expression is tightly regulated by posttranscriptional processes. Within this context, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) represent fundamental factors, since they control mechanisms, such as mRNA-stabilization, -translation and -degradation. Human antigen R (HuR) was among the first RBPs that have been directly associated to carcinogenesis. HuR modulates the stability and translation of mRNAs which encode proteins facilitating various ‘hallmarks of cancer’, namely proliferation, evasion of growth suppression, angiogenesis, cell death resistance, invasion and metastasis. Furthermore, it is well established that tumor-promoting inflammation contributes to tumorigenesis. In this process, monocytes are attracted to the site of the tumor and educated towards a tumor-promoting macrophage phenotype. While HuR has been extensively studied in various tumor cell types, little is known about HuR in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Thus, the aim of my work was to characterize the contribution of HuR to the development of cancer characteristics in HCC. I was particularly interested to investigate if HuR facilitates tumor-promoting inflammation, since a role for HuR has not been described in this context. To this end, I depleted HuR in HepG2 cells (HuR k/d) and used a co-culture model of HepG2 tumor spheroids and infiltrating monocytes to study the impact of HuR on the tumor microenvironment. I could show that depletion of HuR resulted in the reduction of cell numbers. Additionally, the expression of proliferation marker KI-67 and proto-oncogene c-Myc was reduced, supporting a proliferative role of HuR. Furthermore, exposure to cytotoxic staurosporine elevated apoptosis in HuR k/d cells compared to control cells. Concomitantly, the expression of the anti-apoptotic mediator B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2) was markedly reduced in the HuR k/d cells, pointing to an involvement of HuR in cell survival processes.
Accordingly, a pro-survival function of HuR was also observed in tumor spheroids, since HuR k/d spheroids exhibited a larger necrotic core region at earlier time points and showed elevated numbers of dead cells compared to control (Ctr.) spheroids. Interestingly, HuR k/d spheroids isplayed reduced numbers of infiltrated macrophages, suggesting that HuR contributes to a tumor-promoting, inflammatory microenvironment by recruiting monocytes/macrophages to the tumor site. Aiming at identifying HuR-regulated factors responsible for the recruitment of monocytes, I found reduced levels of the chemokine interleukin 8 (IL-8) in supernatants of HuR k/d spheroids, supporting a critical involvement of HuR in the chemoattraction of monocytes. Analyzing supernatants of co-cultures of macrophages and HuR k/d or Ctr. spheroids revealed additional differences in chemokine secretion patterns. Interestingly, protein levels of many chemokines were elevated in co-cultures of HuR k/d spheroids compared to control co-cultures. Albeit enhanced chemokine secretion was observed, less monocytes are recruited into HuR k/d spheroids, further underlining the necessity of HuR in cancer related monocyte/macrophage attraction and infiltration. Differences between chemokine profiles of mono- and co-cultured spheroids could be attributable to changes in spheroid-derived chemokines as a result of the crosstalk with the immune cells. Provided the chemokines originate from monocytes/macrophages, the different secretion patterns suggest that HuR contributes to the modulation of the functional phenotype of infiltrated macrophages, since the tumorenvironment is critically involved in the shaping of macrophage phenotypes. Regions of low-oxygen (hypoxia) represent another critical feature of tumors. Therefore, I next analyzed the impact of HuR on the hypoxic response. Loss of HuR attenuated hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 2α expression after exposure to hypoxia, while HIF-1α protein levels remained unaltered. Considering previous results of our group, showing that HIF-2α depletion (HIF-2α k/d) resulted in the enhanced expression of HIF-1α protein, I aimed to determine the involvement of HuR in the compensatory upregulation of HIF-1α protein in HIF-2α k/d cells. I could demonstrate that not only total HuR protein levels, but specifically cytoplasmic HuR was elevated in HIF-2α depleted cells pointing to enhanced HuR activity. Silencing HuR in HIF-2α deficient cells attenuated enhanced HIF-1α protein expression, thus confirming a direct role of HuR in the compensatory upregulation of HIF-1α. This as also reflected on HIF-1α target gene expression. I further investigated the mechanism underlying the compensatory HIF-1α expression in HIF-2α deficient cells. Analyzing HIF-1α mRNA expression, I excluded enhanced HIF1-α transcription and stability to account for elevated HIF-1α expression in HIF-2α k/d cells. HIF-1α promoter activity assays confirmed the mRNA data. Furthermore, HIF-1α protein half-life was not elevated in HIF-2α k/d cells compared to control cells, indicating that HIF-1α protein stability is not altered in HIF-2α k/d cells. Analysis of the association of HIF-1α with the translational machinery using polysomal fractionation finally revealed an increased istribution of HIF-1α mRNA in the heavier polysomal fractions in HIF-2α k/d cells compared to control cells. Since augmented ribosome occupancy is an indicator for more efficient translation, I propose enhanced HIF-1α translation as underlying principle of the compensatory increase in HIF-1α protein levels in HIF-2α k/d cells. In summary, my results demonstrate that HuR is critical for the development of cancer characteristics in HCC. Future work analyzing the impact of HuR on tumor-promoting inflammation, specifically macrophage attraction and activation could provide new trategies to inhibit macrophage-driven tumor progression. Furthermore, I provide evidence that HuR contributes to the hypoxic response by regulating the expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α. Targeting single HIF-isoforms for tumor therapy should be carefully considered, because of their compensatory regulation when one α-subunit is depleted. Thus, therapeutic strategies targeting factors such as HuR that control both α-subunits and at the same time prevent compensation might be more promising.
Starkes Übergewicht und eine damit einhergehende Hypertrophie von Geweben aber auch des Herz-Kreislauf-Systems führen zu einer Reihe von Folgeerkrankungen wie z. B. Diabetes mellitus Typ 2 oder auch Arteriosklerose. Während im Fettgewebe freie Fettsäuren, die von Makrophagen aufgenommen werden, eine entscheidende Rolle spielen, scheint in der Pathogenese von Arteriosklerose die Aufnahme von Fettsäuren aus Lipoproteinpartikeln durch Makrophagen von großer Wichtigkeit zu sein. Ein weiterer Faktor, der durch freie Fettsäuren ausgelöst wird ist ER-Stress. Makrophagen, die zu Triglycerid (TG) reichen Schaumzellen geworden sind, akkumulieren in arteriosklerotischen Läsionen. Der Lipidmetabolismus von Makrophagen wird transkriptionell u.a. durch den Transkriptionsfaktor PPARγ (Peroxisomproliferator aktivierter Rezeptor γ) reguliert. Sein Zielgen FABP4 (Fettsäuren bindendes Protein 4) beschleunigt die Entwicklung von Arteriosklerose in Mausmodellen. Da die Expression von PPARγ und FABP4 in IL 4- (Interleukin-4) polarisierten Makrophagen induziert wird, sollte die Rolle von FABP4 in humanen, mit IL 4 polarisierten Makrophagen untersucht werden. Hierfür wurden primäre humane Monozyten in Anwesenheit von LPS/IFNγ (Lipopolysaccharid/Interferon γ) bzw. IL 4 zu Makrophagen differenziert. Es zeigte sich, dass in LPS/IFNγ stimulierten Makrophagen PPARγ und dessen Zielgene nicht exprimiert wurden. Dagegen waren sie bei unstimulierten Makrophagen bei IL 4 stimulierten Makrophagen deutlich erhöht. Dies spiegelte sich auch in einer erhöhten Aufnahme von Triglyceriden aus VLDL-Partikeln (Lipoproteinpartikel sehr niedriger Dichte) wider. IL 4 induzierte also einen Fettsäuren akkumulierenden Phänotyp. Durch einen PPAR-Luciferase-Reporter-Test wurde untersucht, ob FABP4 für die Aktivierung von PPARγ nötig war. Dies konnte bestätigt werden, da PPARγ durch seinen Liganden Linolsäure nur in Anwesenheit von FABP4 aktiviert werden konnte. Diese Aktivierung konnte zusätzlich durch den FABP4-Inhibitor HTS01037 verhindert werden. Nun sollte der Einfluss von FABP4 auf die PPARγ-abhängige Genexpression untersucht werden. Hierfür wurde FABP4 während der Differenzierung mit den beiden Inhibitoren HTS01037 oder BMS309403 in IL 4 stimulierten Makrophagen inhibiert. Durch die Inhibition von FABP4 sank die Expression von FABP4 und LPL (Lipoproteinlipase), während die von PPARγ unverändert blieb. Die LPL spielt eine entscheidende Rolle in der Aufnahme von Lipiden aus VLDL-Partikeln und trägt somit zur TG-reichen Schaumzellbildung bei. Die verminderte Expression von LPL spiegelte sich in einer verminderten Lipidaufnahme aus VLDL-Partikeln wider. Gleichzeitig wurde durch die FABP4-Inhibition die Entzündungsantwort der Makrophagen auf VLDL-Partikel abgeschwächt. IL 4 induziert also LPL, indem es PPARγ aktiviert. FABP4 unterstützt hierbei die Aktivierung von PPARγ. Durch die Inhibition kann die LPL-Expression vermindert werden, was die TG-reiche Schaumzellbildung und die Entzündungsreaktion in einem VLDL-reichen Umfeld vermindert und eine neue Therapiemöglichkeit von Arteriosklerose eröffnet. Im Fettgewebe kommt bei starkem Übergewicht, bedingt durch die erhöhte Konzentration an freien Fettsäuren und Hypoxie, zu einer leichten Entzündungsreaktion. Diese Entzündungsreaktion wurde durch eine Stimulation mit Palmitat unter Hypoxie (1 % O2) nachgebildet. Überstände von Makrophagen nach dieser Stimulation (MCM) wurden auf primäre humane Adipozyten übertragen. Diese Überstände konnten zwar keine Insulinresistenz in Adipozyten auslösen, induzierten jedoch eine Entzündungsreaktion. Diese zeigte sich in einer erhöhten Expression der proentzündlichen Zytokine CCL2 (CC-Chemokin-Ligand-2) und IL 6. Gleichzeitig wurde die Expression des antientzündlichen Zytokins Adiponectin vermindert. Der Transfer von MCM ist also ein Modell für die Entstehung der Insulinresistenz in einem frühen Stadium. Beim Versuch, die entzündungsfördernde Fähigkeit des MCMs zu verhindern, wurde AMPK mit verschiedenen Aktivatoren stimuliert. Es zeigte sich, dass der AMPK-Aktivator AICAR (5-Aminoimidazol-4-carboxamidribonukleotid) die Entzündungsantwort und den ER-Stress von mit Hypoxie und Palmitat stimulierten Makrophagen deutlich reduzierte. Der starke Effekt auf den ER-Stress konnte auch mit anderen ER-Stress-Auslösern wie Thapsigargin oder Tunicamycin nachvollzogen werden. Da AICAR ein AMPK-Aktivator ist, wurden typische Effekte der AMPK-Aktvierung wie reduzierte Proteinexpression, verstärkte Sirtuin-1-Aktivierung und Steigerung der Fettsäurenoxidation mittels Inhibitoren verhindert. Dies hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Wirkung von AICAR. Ebenso wurde untersucht, ob AICAR in die Zelle aufgenommen werden musste und ob es zu seiner phosphorylierten Form ZMP umgewandelt werden musste. Durch den Inhibitor ABT 702 kann die Adenosinkinase inhibiert werden, welche die Phosphorylierung katalysiert. Es zeigte sich, dass die Phosphorylierung von AICAR zu ZMP nicht erforderlich war, damit AICAR die ER-Stress-Antwort hemmen konnte. AICAR und nicht ZMP wirkte gegen den ER-Stress. Da durch das fehlende ZMP die AMPK nicht aktiviert wurde, war das ein weiteres Zeichen, dass AICAR AMPK-unabhängig wirkte. Dies konnte durch einen AMPK-Knockdown bestätigt werden. Durch einen Knockdown verschiedener Adenosintransporter konnte gezeigt werden, dass SLC28A3 (Soluttransporterfamlie 28 Typ A3) verantwortlich für die Aufnahme von AICAR in primäre humane Makrophagen war. Es konnte demnach gezeigt werden, dass AICAR den ER-Stress in primären humanen Makrophagen in einem von AMPK unabhängigen Mechanismus vermindert. Dafür wird es mittels SLC28A3 in die Zelle aufgenommen und wirkt als AICAR und nicht als ZMP. Diese Erkenntnisse stellen eine interessante, neue therapeutische Möglichkeit im Feld von Arteriosklerose und Diabetes dar.