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Lesion of the rat entorhinal cortex denervates the outer molecular layer of the fascia dentata followed by layer-specific axonal sprouting of uninjured fibers in the denervated zone. One of the candidate molecules regulating the laminar-specific sprouting response in the outer molecular layer is the transmembrane chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan NG2. NG2 is found in glial scars and has been suggested to impede axonal regeneration following injury of the spinal cord. The present study adressed the question whether NG2 could also regulate axonal growth in denervated areas of the brain. Therefore, (1) changes in NG2 mRNA and NG2 protein levels, (2) the cellular and the extracellular localisation of the molecule, (3) the identity of NG2 expressing cells, and (4) the generation of NG2-positive cells were studied in the rat fascia dentata before and following entorhinal deafferentation. Laser microdissection was employed to selectively harvest the denervated molecular layer and combined with quantitative reverse transcription-PCR to measure changes in NG2 mRNA amount (6h, 12h, 2d, 4d, 7d post lesion). The study revealed increases of NG2 mRNA at day 2 (2.5-fold) and day 4 (2-fold) post lesion. Immunocytochemistry was used to detect changes in NG2 protein distribution (1d, 4d, 7d, 10d, 14d, 30d, 6 months post lesion). NG2 staining was increased in the denervated outer molecular layer at 1 day post lesion, reached a maximum at 10 days post lesion, and returned to control levels within 6 month. Interestingly, the accumulation of NG2 protein was strongly restricted to the denervated outer molecular layer forming a border to the unaffected inner molecular layer. Using electron microscopy, NG2-immunoprecipitate was localized not only on glial surfaces and in the extracellular matrix but also in the vicinity of neuronal profiles indicating that NG2 is secreted following denervation. Double-labelings of NG2-immunopositive cells with markers for astrocytes, microglia/macrophages, and oligodendrocytes suggested that NG2-cells are a distinct glial subpopulation before and after entorhinal deafferentation. Bromodeoxyuridine-labeling revealed that some of the NG2-positive cells are postlesional generated. Taken together, the data revealed a layer-specific upregulation of NG2 in the denervated outer molecular layer of the fascia dentata that coincides with the sprouting response of uninjured fibers. This suggests that NG2 could regulate lesion-induced axonal growth in denervated areas of the brain.
Studies in particular of the last decade showed that active neurogenesis continuously takes place in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles of the adult rodent brain. Neurogenesis in the SVZ leads to migration of neuroblasts within the rostral migratory stream (RMS) and mature neuron formation mainly in the olfactory bulb (OB). According to present understanding, glial cells with astrocytic properties represent the actual adult neural stem cells. The cell types representing the various cellular transition states leading to the formation of mature neurons as well as the mechanisms controlling adult neurogenesis and neuroblast migration are poorly understood. A previous study from this laboratory demonstrated that the ATP-hydrolyzing enzyme nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) is associated with type B cells, the presumptive neural stem cells. NTPDase2 is a protein of the plasma membrane with its catalytic site facing the extracellular space. It hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates to their respective nucleoside diphosphates. This raises the possibility that the signaling pathway via extracellular nucleotides is involved in the control of adult neurogenesis. Neurons as well as glial cells express several subtypes of receptors (P2 receptors) that are responsive to the nucleotides ATP, ADP, UTP, or UDP. P2X receptors are ATP-gated Na+, K+ and Ca2+ permeable ion channels, P2Y receptors are coupled to trimeric G-proteins. In order to probe for a functional role of nucleotides in adult neurogenesis, the present study referred to an in vitro system (neurospheres). Neurospheres produced from isolates of the mouse SVZ and cultured in the presence of EGF and bFGF expressed the neural stem cell marker nestin and also GFAP, S100β, NTPDase2 and tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase. Neurospheres generated from the cells of the subventricular zone were multipotenital. This was revealed by immunostaining of differentiated cells with markers for astrocytes, neurons and oligodendrocytes. The presence of ecto-nucleotidase was verified by analyzing the free phosphate released from nucleotides. The tissue non-specific form of alkaline phosphatase was the predominant enzyme. Both NTPDase2 and TNAP could be identified by immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Hydrolysis was not observed for p-nitrophenyl thymidine monophosphate, a substrate of members of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family (NPP1 to NPP3). Since ecto-nucleotidases control the availability of extracellular nucleotide agonists, neurospheres were studied for the potential expression and functional role of nucleotide receptors. Neurospheres responded to extracellular nucleotides with a transient rise in Ca2+ (ATP = ADP > UTP). The rise in Ca2+ was due to P2Y receptors. The Ca2+ response was unaltered in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ and strongly reduced by thapsigargin, a blocker of internal Ca2+ stores. The P2Y1 antagonist MRS2179 strongly reduced the ATP- or ADP-induced increase in Ca2+, suggesting the involvement of a P2Y1 receptor. In addition, suramin and PPADS, non-selective antagonists for P2 receptors, inhibited most of the Ca2+ response. The agonistic activity of UTP and the lack of response to UDP implied the additional presence of a P2Y2 and/or a P2Y4 receptors and the absence of a functional P2Y6 receptor. RT-PCR experiments demonstrated that neurospheres expressed P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors but not P2Y4 receptor. That the majority of the Ca2+ response to ATP was mediated via P2Y1 receptors was also confirmed by analysis of P2Y1 knockout mice and by application of the P2Y1 receptor-specific antagonist MRS2179. In addition, agonists of P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors and low concentrations of adenosine augmented cell proliferation inspite of the presence of mitogenic growth factors. Neurosphere cell proliferation was attenuated after application of MRS2179 and in neurospheres from P2Y1 receptor knockout mice. These results infer a nucleotide receptor-mediated synergism that augments growth factor-mediated cell proliferation. Taken together these results suggest that P2Y-mediated nucleotidergic signalling is involved in neurosphere function and possibly also in adult neurogenesis in situ.
Extrazelluläre Nukleotide fungieren als auto- und parakrine Signalstoffe aus. Im peripheren und zentralen Nervensystem dienen Nukleotide als Neurotransmitter und Neuromodulatoren. Die nahezu ubiquitäre Expression von Purin-Rezeptoren läßt auf umfassende physiologische Funktionen schließen. Nukleotide konnen über ionotrope P2X-Rezeptoren oder metabotrobe P2Y-Rezeptoren ihre Signalwirkung vermitteln. Via P1-Rezeptoren kann Adenosin, ein Baustein bzw. Abbauprodukt von ATP, seine neuromodulatorische und neuroprotektive Wirkung entfalten. Alkalische Phosphatasen, die Ekto-Nukleotid-Pyrophosphatase/Phosphodiesterase Familie (NPP-Familie) und die Ekto-Nukleosid-Triphosphat-Diphosphohydrolase-Familie (E-NTPDasen) können Nukleosiddiphosphate und Nukleosidtriphosphate hydrolysieren. Die E-NTPDasen sind die wahrscheinlichsten Kandidaten für die Moduluation purinerger Signale im Nervensystem. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Klonierung und Charakterisierung der NTPDase3 der Ratte beschrieben. Ein vollständiger cDNA-Klon der NTPDase3 wurde aus einer Rattenhirnbank isoliert, sequenziert und anhand der familientypischen Sequenzmuster (ACRŽs) als E-NTPDase identifiziert. Die Sequenz enthielt einen offenen Leserahmen der für ein 529 Aminosäuren großes Protein kodierte. Sequenzvergleiche zeigten eine große Ähnlichkeit des Proteins mit den NTPDasen 1, 2 und 8, welche plasmamembranständige Ekto-Enzyme sind. Eine plasmamembranständige Lokalisation konnte in NTPDase3-transfizierten CHO-Zellen und in PC12-Zellen mit endogener NTPDase3-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Anhand von Computeranalysen und Sequenzvergleichen wurden Überlegungen zur Sekundär- und Tertiärstruktur angestellt und Ähnlichkeiten zur Zuckerkinase/ Hitzeschock-Protein 70/Aktin-Superfamilie aufgezeigt. Das Protein war entsprechend der in silico-Analyse glykosiliert und ließ sich über das Lektin ConcavalinA anreichern. Messungen an Membranfraktionen heterelog transfizierter CHO-Zellen zeigten die Hydrolyse verschiedener Nukleosidtriphosphate und Nukleosiddiphosphate mit einer Präferenz für Nukleosidtriphosphate. Das Enzym ist primär Kalziumabhängig und a rbeitet optimal im physiologischen pH-Bereich von pH 7,5 bis pH 8,0. Mit einem ATPase:ADPase-Verhältnis von 5:1 liegt die NTPDase3 zwischen der NTPDase1 und der NTPDase2. Seine biochemischen Eigenschaften machen das Ekto-Enzym zu einem Kandidaten für die Modulation purinerger Signale. Nukleotid-vermittelte Signale können via Hydrolyse durch die NTPDase3, möglicherweise in Kombination mit anderen E-NTPDasen, beendet werden. Als Bestandteil einer Enzymkette mit der Ekto-5Ž-Nukleotidase kann das Enzym zur Produktion des neuromodulatorisch und neuroprotektiv wirkenden Adenosins beitragen. Mögliche Rollen bei der Regulation autokriner, parakriner und synaptischer Signale in nichtneuronalen wie neuronalen Geweben wurden für die Gewebe diskutiert, in denen die NTPDase3 per Westernblot nachgewiesen werden konnte. Neben Dünndarm, Prostata, Pancreas, Nebenhoden und Samenleiter wurde ein NTPDase3-Band vor allem im zentralen Nervensystem gefunden. In allen geprüften Hirnteilen (Bulbus olfactorius, Cerebellum, Cortex, Mesencephalon, Diencephalon, Hippocampus, Striatum, Medulla oblongata), dem Rückenmark und der Hypophyse wurde die NTPDase3 im Westernblot detektiert. Das Enzym könnte an der Regulation exokriner Drüsenfunktionen im Pancreas und am epithelialem Ionentransport involviert sein oder auch bei endokrinen Funktionen des Pankreas und der Hypophyse mitwirken. Möglicherweise hat die NTPDase3 funktionelle Bedeutung bei der Termination und Modulation purinerger Neurotransmission im enterischen Nervensystem, im Rückenmark und in verschiedenen Hirnregionen. An verschiedenen zentralnervösen Funktionen, wie Schmerzwahrnehmung, Atmungs- und Kreislauf-Regulation sowie Gedächtnis- und Lernprozessen sind purinerge Signale maßgeblich beteiligt und es ist wahrscheinlich, daß E-NTPDasen an der Modulation dieser Signale mitwirken. Die in dieser Arbeit beschriebene NTPDase3 ist ein viel versprechender Kandidat für die Regulation purinerger Signale im peripheren und zentralen Nervensystem.