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Institute
Biodegradation and elimination of industrial wastewater in the context of whole effluent assessment
(2010)
The focus of this thesis is on the assessment of the degradability of indirectly discharged wastewater in municipal treatment plants and on assessing indirectly discharged effluents by coupling the Zahn-Wellens test with effect-based bioassays. With this approach persistent toxicity of an indirectly discharged effluent can be detected and attributed to the respective emission source. In the first study 8 wastewater samples from different industrial sectors were analysed according to the “Whole-Effluent Assessment“ (WEA) approach developed by OSPAR. In another study this concept has been applied with 20 wastewater samples each from paper manufacturing and metal surface treating industry. In the first study generally low to moderate ecotoxic effects of wastewater samples have been determined. One textile wastewater sample was mutagenic in the Ames test and genotoxic in the umu test. The source of these effects could not be identified. After treatment in the Zahn-Wellens test the mutagenicity in the Ames test was eliminated completely while in the umu test genotoxicity could still be observed. Another wastewater sample from chemical industry was mutagenic in the Ames test. The mutagenicity with this wastewater sample was investigated by additional chemical analysis and backtracking. A nitro-aromatic compound (2-methoxy-4-nitroaniline) used for batchwise azo dye synthesis and its transformation products are the probable cause for the mutagenic effects analysed. Testing the mother liquor from dye production confirmed that this partial wastewater stream was mutagenic in the Ames test. The wasteweater samples from paper manufacturing industry of the second study were not toxic or genotoxic in the acute Daphnia test, fish egg test and umu test. In the luminescent bacteria test, moderate toxicity was observed. Wastewater of four paper mills demonstrated elevated or high algae toxicity, which was in line with the results of the Lemna test, which mostly was less sensitive than the algae test. The colouration of the wastewater samples in the visible band did not correlate with algae toxicity and thus is not considered as its primary origin. The algae toxicity in wastewater of the respective paper factory could also not be explained with the thermomechanically produced groundwood pulp (TMP) partial stream. Presumably other raw materials such as biocides might be the source of algae toxicity. In the algae test, often flat dose–response relationships and growth promotion at higher dilution factors have been observed, indicating that several effects are overlapping. The wastewater samples from the printed circuit board and electroplating industries (all indirectly discharged) were biologically pre-treated for 7 days in the Zahn–Wellens test before ecotoxicity testing. Thus, persistent toxicity could be discriminated from non-persistent toxicity caused, e.g. by ammonium or readily biodegradable compounds. With respect to the metal concentrations, all samples were not heavily polluted. The maximum conductivity of the samples was 43,700 micro S cm -1 and indicates that salts might contribute to the overall toxicity. Half of the wastewater samples proved to be biologically well treatable in the Zahn–Wellens test with COD elimination above 80%, whilst the others were insufficiently biodegraded (COD elimination 28–74%). After the pre-treatment in the Zahn–Wellens test, wastewater samples from four companies were extremely ecotoxic especially to algae. Three wastewater samples were genotoxic in the umu test. Applying the rules for salt correction to the test results following the German Wastewater Ordinance, only a small part of toxicity could be attributed to salts. In one factory, the origin of ecotoxicity has been attributed to the organosulphide dimethyldithiocarbamate (DMDTC) used as a water treatment chemical for metal precipitation. The assumption, based on rough calculation of input of the organosulphide into the wastewater, was confirmed in practice by testing its ecotoxicity at the corresponding dilution ratio after pre-treatment in the Zahn–Wellens test. The results show that bioassays are a suitable tool for assessing the ecotoxicological relevance of these complex organic mixtures. The combination of the Zahn–Wellens test followed by the performance of ecotoxicity tests turned out to be a cost-efficient suitable instrument for the evaluation of indirect dischargers and considers the requirements of the IPPC Directive.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) do not eliminate micropollutants completely and are thus important point sources for these substances. In particular, concerns about en-docrine disrupting compounds in WWTP effluents give rise to the implementation of advanced treatment steps for the elimination of trace organic contaminants. The present study investigated ozonation (O3) and activated carbon treatment (AC) at two WWTPs. For an ecotoxicological assessment at WWTP Regensdorf, conventionally treated wastewater, wastewater after ozonation, and ozonated wastewater after sand filtration were evaluated in parallel via the fish early life stage toxicity test (FELST) using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Additionally, a comparative toxicity evalu-ation of ozonated and activated carbon treated effluents was performed at the pilot scale treatment plant in Neuss (WWTP Neuss). For this purpose, four invertebrate tests and one higher plant toxicity test were selected to assess potential biological effects on or-ganisms [Lemna minor growth inhibition test, chironomid toxicity test with Chironomus riparius, Lumbriculus variegatus toxicity test, comet assay with haemolymph of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), reproduction test with Potamopyrgus antipo-darum]. All in vivo assays were performed on site at the treatment plants in flow-through test systems. Furthermore, the present study investigated the effects of ozona-tion and activated carbon treatment on endocrine activities [estrogenicity, anti-estrogenicity, androgenicity, anti-androgenicity, aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonistic activity] with yeast based bioassays using solid phase extracted water samples. To evaluate the removal of in vitro non-specific toxicity, a cytotoxicity assay using a rat cell line was applied. The FELST at WWTP Regensdorf revealed a considerable developmental retardation of test organisms exposed to ozonated WW. This was accompanied by a significant decrease in body weight and length compared to reference water, to the conventionally treated WW, and to the ozonated water after sand filtration. Hence sand filtration obvi-ously prevents from adverse ecotoxicological effects of ozonation. An additional test – starting with yolk-sac larvae – resulted in a significant reduction of vitellogenin levels in fish exposed to ozonated wastewater compared to fish reared in conventionally treat-ed wastewater. This demonstrates the effective removal of estrogenic activity by ozonation. At WWTP Neuss, the reproduction test with the mudsnail P. antipodarum exhibited a decreased reproductive output after advanced treatment compared to conventional treatment. This indicates an effective estrogenicity removal by ozonation and activated carbon treatment and is confirmed by results of the yeast estrogen screen with a reduc-tion of in vitro estrogenic activity by > 75%. The L. variegatus test revealed a signifi-cantly enhanced toxicity after ozonation compared to conventional treatment, whereas this effect was reduced following subsequent sand filtration. When ozonation was applied, a significantly increased genotoxicity was observed, detected with the comet assay using haemolymph of the zebra mussel. Again, this effect was removed by subsequent sand filtration to the level of conventional treatment. Activated carbon treatment even resulted in a significant reduction of genotoxicity. At both treatment plants, adverse effects after ozonation may have been a result of the formation of toxic oxidation by-products. However, sand filtration reduced toxication effects, indicating that these oxidation by-products are readily degradable or adsorbable. The results point out that, in any case, ozonation should not be applied without subsequent biologically active post treatment appropriate for oxidation by-products removal (e.g. sand filtration). However, only activated carbon achieved a toxicity reduction compared to the conventional treated wastewater. Thus, it cannot be excluded that po-tential beneficial effects due to ozonation might be masked by residual toxic oxidation by-products passing the sand filter or ozonation is not as effective in toxicity removal as PAC treatment. The yeast based assays with solid phase extracted samples revealed an effective endo-crine activity removal during ozonation and activated carbon filtration (estrogenicity: 77 – 99%, anti-androgenicity: 63 – 96%, AhR agonistic activity: 79 – 82%). The cyto-toxicity assay exhibited a 32% removal of non-specific toxicity after ozonation com-pared to conventional treatment. Ozonation in combination with sand filtration reduced cytotoxic effects by 49%, indicating that sand filtration contributes to the removal of toxicants. Activated carbon treatment was the most effective technology for cytotoxici-ty removal (61%). Sample evaporation reduced cytotoxic effects by 52% (after activated carbon treatment) to 73% (after ozonation), demonstrating that volatile substances contribute considerably to toxic effects, particularly after ozone treatment. These results confirm an effective removal or transformation of toxicants with receptor mediated mode of action and non-specific toxicants during both investigated treatment steps. However, due to the limited extractability, polar ozonation by-products were neglected for toxicity analysis, and hence non-specific toxicity after O3 is underestimated. In the long run, only on-site comparisons at WW receiving water bodies (e.g. communi-ty analysis of fish, macroinvertebrates, plants, microorganisms) – before and after up-grading WWTPs – allow drawing environmentally relevant conclusions regarding bene-fits and risks of advanced WW treatment methods. Conclusively, the benefits and possible negative impacts have to be carefully evaluated to prove that not more environmental impact will be induced than removed by advanced treatment technologies as each additional treatment requires considerable amounts of energy, resources, and infrastructure facilities. Accordingly, comprehensive sustainable approaches for pollution prevention and wastewater treatment (e.g. source control and source separation) are preferable compared to end-of-pipe treatment systems.
Therapy of hemorrhagic shock with following resuscitation-induced liver injury : in vivo study
(2010)
Shock resulting from life-threatening blood-loss (hemorrhagic shock) represents the most frequent injury pattern after a traumatic insult. Hemorrhagic shock induces inflammatory changes, characterized by highly complex pathophysiological pathways often resulting in death. In this study, we establish an experimental in vivo model of H/R in rats and study the mechanisms which determine the hepatic injury after H/R. Furthermore, we show that hemorrhagic shock with following resuscitation is accompanied with release of systemic and local pro-inflammatory mediators, increased infiltration of hepatic neutrophils in the liver, increased oxidative and nitrosative stress, enhanced cell death of both types, apoptosis and necrosis, conspicuous cytoskeletal rearrangements, loss of hepatic integrity and finally high general mortality rates, up to 80%. In addition, the effects of two potential therapeutic interventions to prevent the H/R induced liver injury are explored in a model of H/R in rats. First, the role of JNK and its inhibition by D-JNKI-1 in preservation of hepatic integrity following H/R was analyzed. Second, we investigated the potential of simvastatin to prevent the disturbed inflammatory response and hepatic injury after H/R. The effects of both therapeutic interventions were studied by looking at several inflammatory parameters, markers of oxidative and nitrosative stress, cytoskeleton integrity, microcirculatory parameters, underlying signaling cascades, liver damage and mortality. Highly specific blockade of JNK with the potent, inhibitory peptide D-JNKI-1 revealed the crucial role of the JNK signaling pathway in the H/R induced pathophysiology and strong protective effects of DJNKI- 1 in H/R induced liver injury, when the peptide was applied before and even after hemorrhagic shock. The other therapeutic intervention tested in this study was the use of simvastatin which also revealed protective effects after H/R and even a remarkable improvement in survival after H/R. We show that H/R induced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, hepatic PMNL infiltration, increased oxidative and nitrosative stress, apoptosis and necrosis can be diminished by treatment with D-JNKI-1 but also with simvastatin in vivo. Furthermore, simvastatin reduces H/R induced cytoskelatal rearrangements, loss of liver integrity and the mortality rate after H/R. The key pathway which underlies these beneficial effects of simvastatin is the Rho kinase pathway. Identification of both mechanisms as well as the effectiveness of both substances provide new insights in the close interaction between hypoxia and the immune system and present a promising basis for the anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective treatment after H/R.
Regulatory required, classical toxicity studies for environmental hazard assessment are costly, time consuming, and often lack mechanistic insights about the toxic mode of action induced through a compound. In addition, classical toxicological non-human animal tests raise serious ethical concerns and are not well suited for high throughput screening approaches. Molecular biomarker-based screenings could be a suitable alternative for identifying particular hazardous effects (e.g. endocrine disruption, developmental neurotoxicity) in non-target organisms at the molecular level. This, however, requires a better mechanistic understanding of different toxic modes of action (MoA) to describe characteristic molecular key events and respective markers.
Ecotoxicgenomics, which uses modern day omic technologies and systems biology approaches to study toxicological responses at the molecular level, are a promising new way for elucidating
the processes through which chemicals cause adverse effects in environmental organisms. In this context, this PhD study was designated to investigate and describe MoA-characteristic
ecotoxicogenomic signatures in three ecotoxicologically important aquatic model organisms of different trophic levels (Danio rerio, Daphnia magna and Lemna minor).
Applying non-target transcriptomic and proteomic methodologies post chemical exposure, the aim was to identify robust functional profiles and reliable biomarker candidates with potential
predictive properties to allow for a differentiation among different MoA in these organisms. For the sublethal exposure studies in the zebrafish embryo model (96 hpf), the acute fish embryo toxicity test guideline (OECD 236) was used as conceptual framework. As different test compounds with known MoA, the thyroid hormone 3,3′,5-triiodothyronine (T3) and the thyrostatic 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (6-PTU), as well as six nerve- and muscle-targeting insecticides (abamectin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, imidacloprid and methoxychlor) were evaluated. Furthermore, a novel sublethal immune challenge assay in early zebrafish embryos (48 hpf) was evaluated for its potential to assess immuno-suppressive effects at the gene expression level. Therefore, toxicogenomic profiles after an immune response inducing stimulus with and without prior clobetasol propionate (CP) treatment were compared. For the aquatic invertebrate D. magna, the study was performed with previously determined low effect concentrations (EC5 & EC20) of fipronil and imidacloprid according to the acute immobilization test in water flea (OECD 202). The aim was to compare toxicogenomic signatures of the GABA-gated chloride channel blocker (fipronil) and the nAChR agonist (imidacloprid). With similar low effect concentrations, a shortened 3 day version of the growth inhibition test with L. minor (OECD 221) was conducted to find molecular profiles differentiating between photosynthesis and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitory effects. Here, the biological interpretation of the molecular stress response profiles in L. minor due to the lack of functional annotation of the reference genome was particularly challenging. Therefore, an annotation workflow was developed based on protein sequence homology predicted from the genomic reference sequences.
With this PhD work, it was shown how transcriptomic, proteomic and computational systems biology approaches can be coupled with aquatic toxicological tests, to gain important mechanistic insights into adverse effects at the molecular level. In general, for the different investigated adverse effects for the different organisms, biomarker candidates were identified, which describe a potential functional link between impaired gene expressions and previously reported apical effects. For the assessed chemicals in the zebrafish embryo model, biomarker candidates for thyroid disruption as well as developmental toxicity targeting the heart and central nervous system were described. The biomarkers derived from nerve- and muscletargeting insecticides were associated with three major affected processes: (1) cardiac muscle cell development and functioning, (2) oxygen transport and hypoxic stress and (3) neuronal development and plasticity. To our knowledge, this is the first study linking neurotoxic insecticide exposure and affected expression of important regulatory genes for heart muscle (tcap, actc2) and forebrain (npas4a) development in a vertebrate model. The proposed immunosuppression assay found CP to affect innate immune induction by attenuating the response of genes involved in antigen processing, TLR signalling, NF-КB signalling, and complement activation ...
Clean water is fundamental to human health and ecosystem integrity. However, water quality deteriorates due to novel anthropogenic pollutants present at microgram per liter concentrations in urban water cycles (termed micropollutants). Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) have been identified as major point sources for aquatic (micro-)pollutants. Chemical and ecotoxicological analyses have shown that conventional biological WWTPs do not fully remove micropollutants and associated toxicities, which is often because of mobile, polar and/or recalcitrant compounds and transformation products (TPs). To minimize possible environmental risks, advanced wastewater treatment (AWWT) technologies could be a promising mitigation measure. Multiple processes are therefore being developed and evaluated such as ozonation and ozonation followed by granulated activated carbon (GAC) or biological filtration. Assessing the performance of these combined AWWTs was the focus the TransRisk project. Within this project, this thesis accomplished four major goals.
Firstly, the preparation of (waste)water samples was optimised for in vitro bioassays. Acidification, filtration and solid phase extraction (SPE) were tested for their impact on environmentally relevant in vitro endocrine activities, mutagenicity, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. Significantly different outcomes of these assays were detected comparing neutral and acidified samples. Sample filtration had a lesser impact, but in some cases retention of particle-bound compounds could have caused significant toxicity losses. Out of three SPE sorbents the Telos C18/ENV at sample pH 2.5 extracted highest toxicity, some undetected in aqueous samples. These results indicate that sample preparation needs to be optimised for specific sample matrices and bioassays to avoid false-positive or -negative detects in effect-based analyses.
Secondly, the above listed in vitro toxicities were monitored in a protected region for drinking water production in South-West Germany (2012-2015). Out of 30 sampling sites surface water and groundwater were the least polluted. Nonetheless, a few groundwater samples induced high anti-estrogenic activity that prompted further monitoring. The latter included a waterworks in which no toxicity was detected. Hospital wastewater also had elevated in vitro toxicities and hospitals are, thus, relevant intervention points for source control. The biological WWTPs were effective in removing most of the detected toxicity, and the selected bioassays proved to be pertinent tools for water quality assessment and prioritisation of pollution hotspots.
Thirdly, the in vivo bioassay ISO10872 based on Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was adapted for this thesis. Using this model, a median effect concentration (EC50) for reproductive toxicity of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon β-naphthoflavone (β- NF) of 114 µg/L was computed which is slightly lower than reported in the scientific literature. β-NF induced cyp-35A3::GFP (a biomarker in transgenic animals) in a time and concentration dependent manner (≤ 21.3–24 fold above controls). β-NF spiked wastewater samples supported earlier hypotheses on particle-bound pollutants. Reproductive toxicity (96 h) and cyp-35A3 induction (24 h) of biologically treated and/or ozonated wastewater extracts and growth promoting effects of GAC/biologically filtered ozonated wastewater extracts were observed. This suggested the presence of residual bioactive/toxic chemicals not included in the targeted chemical analysis. It also highlighted the importance of integrating multiple (apical and molecular) endpoints in wastewater assessments.
Fourthly, five in vitro and the adapted C. elegans bioassay were integrated into a wastewater quality evaluation (developed within TransRisk). Out of the five AWWT options, ozonation (at 1 g O3,applied/g DOC, HRT ~ 18 min) combined with nonaerated GAC filtration was rated most effective for toxicity removal. All five AWWTs largely removed estrogenic and (anti-)androgenic activities, but not anti-estrogenic activity and mutagenicity, which even increased during ozonation. This has been observed in related studies and points towards toxic TPs. These results also emphasized the need for implementing an effective post-treatment for ozonation. The results from a parallel in vivo study with Lumbriculus variegatus and Potamopyrgus antipodarum conducted on site at the WWTP (using flow through systems) were in accordance with the C. elegans results. In this context, it is suggested to further implement C. elegans as sensitive, feasible and ecologically relevant model.
In conclusion, this thesis shows how optimised sample preparation, long-term (in vitro) environmental monitoring, sensitive and ecologically relevant (in vivo) bioassays as well as innovative evaluation concepts, are pivotal in improving the removal of micropollutants and their toxicities with AWWTs. Future research should further develop and evaluate measures at sewer systems, conventional biological, tertiary and other advanced treatment technologies, as well as sociopolitical strategies (e.g., source control or natural conservation) and restoration projects. The effect-based tools optimised in this thesis will support assessing their success.
In the past decades, the use and production of chemicals has been on the rise globally due to increasing industrialization and intensive agriculture; resulting in the occurrence and ecotoxicological risks of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) in the aquatic compartments. Risks include changes in community structure resulting in the dominance of one species and ecosystem imbalance. When dominant disease-causing organisms are in the environment, the disease transmission is increased. For example, host snails for the schistosomiasis, a human trematode disease, are known to be tolerant to pesticide
exposure compared to the predators. This would therefore result in an increased abundance of snails which consequently increase the disease transmission in the human population.
Kenya, being a low income country faces a lot of challenges with provision of clean water, diseases and sanitation facilities, and increasing population which results in intensive agriculture coupled with pesticide use. Although a lot of research has been carried out on the environmental occurrence and risk of CECs (Chapter 1), most of these studies have been done in developed countries with limited information from Africa. Additionally, research in Africa focused on urban areas with limited number of compounds analyzed and mostly in the water phase, and inadequate information on the effects of CECs on the aquatic organisms. In order to reduce this knowledge gap, this dissertation focused on identification and quantification of CECs present in water, sediment and snails from western Kenya, and the contribution of pesticides to the transmission of schistosomiasis.
Chapter 2 gives a summary of the results and discussion of the dissertation. In Chapter 3, a comprehensive chemical analysis was carried out on 48 water samples to identify compounds, spatial patterns and associated risks for fish, crustacean and algae using toxic unit (TU) approach. A total of 78 compounds were detected with pesticides and biocides being the compounds most frequently detected. Spatial pattern analysis revealed limited compound grouping based on land use. Acute risk for crustaceans and algae were driven by one to three individual compounds. These compounds responsible for toxicity were prioritized as candidate compounds for monitoring and regulation in Kenya.
In Chapter 4, an extension of Chapter 3 was done to cover the CECs present in snails and sediment from the 48 sites. A total of 30 compounds were found in snails and 78 in sediments with 68 additional compounds being found which were not previously detected in water. Higher contaminant concentrations were found in agricultural sites than in areas without anthropogenic activities. The highest acute toxicity (TU 0.99) was determined for crustaceans based on compounds in sediment samples. The risk was driven by diazinon and pirimiphos-methyl. Acute and chronic risks to algae were driven by diuron whereas fish were found to be at low to no acute risk.
In Chapter 5, the effect of pesticide contamination on schistosomiasis transmission was evaluated by applying complimentary laboratory and field studies. In the field studies, the ecological mechanisms through which pesticides and physical chemical parameters affect host snails, predators and competitors were investigated. Pesticide data was obtained from the results in chapter 3. The overall distribution of grazers and predators was not affected by pesticide pollution. However, within the grazers, pesticide pollution increased dominance of host snails. On the contrary, the host-snail competitors were highly sensitive to pesticide exposure. For the laboratory studies, macroinvertebrates including Schistosoma-host snails, competitors and predators were exposed to 6 concentrations levels of imidacloprid and diazinon. Snails showed higher insecticide tolerance compared to competitors and predators. Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes the conclusions of this dissertation, placing it in a broader
context. In this dissertation, a comprehensive chemical characterization and risk assessment of CECs has been carried out in freshwater systems; together with the effects of pesticides on schistosomiasis transmission in rural western Kenya. Results of this dissertation showed that rural areas are contaminated posing a risk to aquatic organisms which contribute to schistosomiasis transmission. This shows the need for regular monitoring and policy formulation to reduce pollutant emissions which contributes negatively to both ecological and human health effects.
Chemical contamination of the environment and thus of aquatic ecosystems is steadily increasing. Whenever environmental pollutants enter a water body, they affect not only the water, but also the sediment. Substances that bind to sediment particles can be stored for a long time, whereby sediments act as sinks for some contaminants. Therefore, sediment
assessments often more accurately describe the contamination of a water body than investigations of the water itself. Among environmental chemicals, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) have gained more and more attention in recent years. Since they interfere with endocrine systems and may disturb reproduction, they endanger the survival of populations or even species. Hazardous substances enter the aquatic environment by different pathways, with sewage treatment plants (STPs) belonging to the most important contamination sources.The main objective of this work is a comprehensive sediment assessment of predominantly small surface waters in the German federal state of Hesse. The 50 study sites, located in 44 different creeks and small rivers, are situated in the densely populated and economically important Frankfurt/Rhine-Main area, as well as in rural and less urbanized regions.
Chemical analytical data, provided by the Hessian Agency for the Environment and Geology (HLUG), indicated different contamination levels of the study sites. In order to investigate the general toxicity of the sediment samples, the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus and the midge Chironomus riparius were exposed to whole sediments and apical endpoints regarding biomass, survival, and reproduction were determined. In further experiments, special attention was paid to the contamination with endocrine active compounds. For this purpose, the reproductive success of the New Zealand mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum was analyzed after exposure to whole sediments. Additionally, a yeast-based reporter gene assay was applied with sediment eluates to assess the estrogenic and androgenic activity of the samples. Biotest results were compared with chemical analysis data to investigate whether the test organisms reflect the measured pollution of the study sites and if the observed effects can be explained by chemical contamination.
Five study sites, all located less than 1 km downstream of a STP discharger, were selected for further investigations based on the results of the sediment monitoring. The sediments from these sites were conspicuous due to their general toxic and/or estrogenic activity. In order to investigate whether the observed effects can be ascribed to the effluents, an active biomonitoring study was conducted with the mudsnail P. antipodarum and the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha, exposed at study sites located up- and downstream of the discharger.
In addition to endocrine activity, genotoxic effects were investigated using the comet assay and the micronucleus assay. Endocrine activity was examined based on the reproductive output of P. antipodarum and the content of vitellogenin-like proteins in D. polymorpha. Yeast-based reporter gene assays were used to estimate the endocrine potential (estrogen, anti-estrogen, anti-androgen, dioxin-like) of sediment and water samples.
22% of the 50 sediments showed ecologically relevant effects in the biotests with L. variegatus and C. riparius. Only one sediment caused a relevant effect on both test organisms, while the other ten positively tested sediments affected either L. variegatus or C. riparius, probably due to differences in inter-species sensitivities. This suggests that a combination of different biotests is necessary for a comprehensive evaluation of sediment toxicity. 78% of the sediments caused a significantly increased number of embryos in P. antipodarum, which could be ascribed to estrogenic contamination of the sediment samples. An increase in the number of embryos by 60%, as observed in this study, and an associated increase in population size may result in the displacement of other, less competitive species.
In the in vitro tests, 66% of the sediments showed estrogenic activity and 68% showed androgenic activity. Maximum observed values were 40.9 ng EEQ/kg sediment (EEQ = estradiol equivalent) for estrogenic and 93.4 ng TEQ/kg sediment (TEQ = testosterone equivalent) for androgenic activity. Natural and synthetic hormones as well as alkylphenols were the major contributors to the total estrogenicity of environmental samples in several other studies, and are likely responsible for a large part of the estrogenic activity in this case as well. Similarly, androgenic activity is mainly due to natural steroids and their metabolites.
Bioassay results reflect the analytically measured contamination levels at the study sites only very infrequently. This can be ascribed to the occurrence of integrated effects of chemical mixtures present in the sediments. Additionally, effects of substances not included in the analytical program or of substances present in concentrations below the detection limit of the chemical analytical investigations as well as varying bioavailabilities might be relevant. The fact that a large part of the observed effects cannot be explained by the chemical contamination demonstrates the need for effect studies in ecotoxicological sediment assessments.
In order to identify possible causes for the effects observed in the sediment monitoring, e.g. contamination sources, the area types (urban fabrics, arable lands, pasturages, etc.) of the catchment areas belonging to the study sites were analyzed. No significant differences were found between the area profiles of the sampling sites with and without effects in the biotests.
The results indicate that the contamination responsible for the observed effects can be ascribed to different sources. Furthermore, study sites whose sediments exerted significant effects in biotests were located in anthropogenic as well as in predominantly natural areas. The active biomonitoring study at STPs revealed genotoxic and endocrine effects only sporadically.
However, in the in vitro tests considerable endocrine activities of sediment and water samples were determined. No conclusive picture emerges as to whether the observed effects occur more frequently downstream of the dischargers, and thus could be attributed to a contamination by sewage. This indicates that contamination sources other than STP dischargers, for example agricultural runoff, may contribute to the observed effects. Weaker effects and biological activities downstream of a discharger compared to an upstream site might be ascribed to a dilution effect by the effluents. A comparison of the measured in vitro estrogenicity with exposure studies described in the literature shows that adverse effects in aquatic organisms can be expected at the EEQ concentrations determined in the present study.
The results of the sediment monitoring and the STP study revealed a widespread endocrine pollution of small surface waters in Hesse. The fact that the bioassay results only rarely reflect study site contamination as determined by chemical analysis demonstrates the need for effect studies in comprehensive sediment assessments. In some cases STP dischargers increased, in other cases they decreased the observed in vivo effects and in vitro activity of environmental samples. Transferring the results obtained in laboratory studies to the field, adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems can be expected. The study illustrates the need for restrictive measures that contribute to the removal or reduction of environmental pollutants.
For the identification of substances that have so far not been linked to adverse effects on the environment, methods such as effect-directed analyses (EDA) or toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) should be increasingly applied in future studies. Furthermore, bioassays for the assessment of endocrine activity should be implemented in standardized monitoring programs.
1. Halobacillus halophilus akkumuliert zum Ausgleich geringer, extrazellulärer Wasserpotentiale kompatible Solute. Bei Anzuchten in Gegenwart von 0,4 – 1,5 M NaCl wurden Glutamin und Glutamat als die dominierenden kompatiblen Solute identifiziert, während zwischen 2,0 und 3,0 M NaCl Prolin das dominierende Solut darstellt. Außerdem wurde Ectoin als zweites kompatibles Solut gefunden, das spezifisch bei hohen Salzgehalten akumuliert wird. Die Konzentrationen während der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase war jedoch um den Faktor 6 – 7 geringer im Vergleich zu Prolin. 2. Aus Wachstumsexperimenten in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Anionen war bekannt, dass Glutamat, im Gegensatz zu Gluconat und Nitrat, in der Lage ist, das Wachstum von H. halophilus auch in Abwesenheit von Chlorid zu ermöglichen. Um der Frage nachzugehen, ob die wachstumsfördernde Wirkung von unphysiologisch hohen Glutamat-Konzentrationen im Medium auf die Verwendung von Glutamat als kompatiblem Solut in den Zellen zurückzuführen ist, wurden Gesamtsolutepools von Chlorid-, Nitrat-, Gluconat- und Glutamat-gezogenen Zellen gemessen. In NaCl-gezogenen Zellen zeigte sich Glutamat als dominantes Solut, während Prolin und Glutamin einen geringeren Teil am Gesamtpool ausmachten. In Nitrat-gezogenen Zellen betrug der Gesamtpool nur noch 83% und in Gluconat-gezogenen Zellen nur noch 27% im Vergleich zu Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen. Zellen, die mit Glutamat gezogen wurden, zeigten jedoch eine Gesamtkonzentration an Soluten, die ca. 100% über dem Vergleichswert aus Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen lag. Die Konzentration an Glutamin in den Zellen stieg dabei um 168%, die Konzentration an Glutamat sogar um 299%. Die Prolinkonzentration verringerte sich um 32%. Diese Daten belegen, dass der wachstumsstimulierende Effekt von Glutamat auf die Verwendung als kompatibles Solut zurückzuführen ist. 3. Zur Untersuchung der molekularen Grundlage der Salzadaptation sowie der Abhängigkeit von Chlorid in H. halophilus wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Gruppe von Prof. D. Oesterhelt (MPI für Biochemie, Martinsried) die Sequenzierung des Genoms begonnen. Das Projekt ist zur Zeit noch nicht abgeschlossen und befindet sich in der „Lückenschluß-Phase“. Die bisherigen Sequenzdaten konnten dennoch für die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen Untersuchungen herangezogen werden. Das Genom besitzt eine Größe von ca. 4,1 Mbp mit einem ungefähren GC-Gehalt von 40%. Außerdem wurden 2 Plasmide identifiziert mit einer Größe von 16047 und 3329 bp. 4. Die Schlüsselgene bekannter Biosynthesewege für Glutamin und Glutamat konnten identifiziert werden. Darunter befinden sich zwei Isogene für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase (gdh1 und gdh2), ein Gen für die große Untereinheit einer Glutamatsynthase (gltA), zwei Gene für die kleine Untereinheit einer Glutamat-Synthase (gltB1 und gltB2) und zwei Isogene für eine Glutaminsynthetase (glnA1 und glnA2). glnA1 befindet sich in einem Cluster zusammen mit einem Gen, das für einen Regulator kodiert (glnR), wie er auch aus B. subtilis bekannt ist. Über reverse Transkription von mRNA und anschließender PCR-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl gltA/gltB1 als auch glnA1/glnR in einem Operon organisiert sind. 5. Wurde die Transkriptmenge der in Punkt 4 erwähnten Biosynthesegene in Zellen quantifiziert, die in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Salzkonzentrationen (0,4 – 3,0 M NaCl) gezogen wurden, so zeigte sich keine Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration für die Gene gltA, glnA1 und gdh1. Über die Transkriptmengen von gdh2 ließ sich keine abschließende Aussage treffen, da die gefundenen Transkriptmengen sehr gering waren und daher zu sehr großen Varianzen bei der Quantifizierung führten. Eine klare Abhängigkeit der Transkriptmenge von der im Medium zugesetzten Salzkonzentration konnte für glnA2 gezeigt werden. Die glnA2 mRNA-Menge stieg dabei mit steigender Salzkonzentration an und erreichte bei 1,5 – 2.0 M NaCl ein Maximum. Bei diesen Salzkonzentrationen war die Menge an mRNA ca. 4 mal höher als der Vergleichswert bei 0,4 M NaCl. Bei höhern Salzkonzentrationen sank die Menge an Transkript wieder leicht und war dann ca. nur noch 3 mal so hoch wie bei 0,4 M NaCl. 6. Die zelluläre Konzentration der glnA2-Transkripte in Abhängigkeit unterschiedlicher Anionen im Anzuchtmedium wurde untersucht. Die Quantifizierung der glnA2–mRNA ergab eine 2 mal höhere Transkriptmenge in Gegenwart von Chlorid verglichen mit Nitrat oder Gluconat. 7. Es wurde nach Enzymaktivitäten der bekannten Schlüsselenzyme im Glutamat und Glutamin-Biosyntheseweg gesucht. Eine Glutamatdehydrogenase und eine Glutamatsynthase – Aktivität konnte nicht oder nur in vernachlässigbarem Maße nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu konnt eine Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität eindeutig belegt werden. Diese Aktivität erwies sich abhängig von der Art und der Konzentration des angebotenen Anions im Medium. Maximale Aktivitäten wurden mit NaCl in einer Konzentration von 2,5 – 3,0 M erreicht. Interessanterweise erwies sich die Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität auch abhängig von der Art des im Testpuffers verwendeten Anions. Hier zeigte sich eine deutliche Stimulierung der Aktivität durch das Anion Chlorid. [Die für diesen Punkt zugrunde liegenden Daten wurden im Rahmen einer von mir mitbetreuten Diplomarbeit von Jasmin F. Sydow erhoben und sind aus Gründen der vollständigen Darstellung des Projektverlaufes mitaufgeführt!] 8. Wie im Punkt 1 dargelegt, wird Prolin vor allem bei hohen Salzkonzentrationen in H. halophilus - Zellen akkumuliert. Neben der Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration wurde außerdem die Abhängigkeit von der Wachstumsphase untersucht. Die Analyse der Prolinkonzentrationen während verschiedener Wachstumsphasen in Kulturen, die bei 1,0 bzw. 2,5 M NaCl angezogen wurden, zeigte, (i) dass die Prolinkonzentration während der frühen exponentiellen Phase ca. 2,5-fach erhöht war im Vergleich zu Niedrigsalz-Zellen, (ii) dass die Prolinkonzentration beim Übergang von der frühen in die späte exponentielle Phase dramatisch abnahm (um 64% bei 2,5 M NaCl) und dass (iii) in der stationären Phase Prolin praktisch nicht mehr nachzuweisen war. 9. Die Biosynthesegene für die Herstellung von Prolin aus Glutamat konnten im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert werden. Es handelt sich dabei um ein Cluster von 3 Genen, die für eine putative Pyrrolin-5-carboxylatreductase (proH), eine Glutamat-5-kinase (proJ), und eine Glutamat-5-semialdehyd-dehydrogenase (proA) kodieren. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 10. Eine Quantifizierung der Transkriptmengen der Biosynthesegene proH, proJ und proA mittels quantitativer PCR in Zellen, die bei unterschiedlichen NaCl-Konzentrationen gezogen wurden, zeigte einen deutlichen Zusammenhang zwischen der Salinität des Mediums und der Menge an Transkript. Diese war umso höher, je höher die Salinität des Mediums war. Die maximale Transkriptmenge (6-fach) wurde bei einer Salzkonzentration von 2,5 M NaCl erreicht. Bei noch höherer Salzkonzentration sank die Transkriptmenge auf die ca. 5-fache Menge des Kontrollwertes ab. 11. Um die Regulation und Dynamik der Osmoregulation unabhängig vom Wachstum untersuchen zu können, wurde ein Zellsuspensions-System für H. halophilus etabliert, bei dem eine konzentrierte Zellsuspension direkt von geringen auf hohe Salzkonzentrationen überführt wurde und bei dem die Prozesse der Transkription, Translation und Solut-Biosynthese erhalten blieben. Beispielhaft wurde dieses System an der Produktion von Prolin nach einem Salzschock von 0,8 auf 2,0 M NaCl getestet. Es zeigte sich bei der Analyse, dass sich die Transkriptmengen unmittelbar nach dem Salzschock deutlich erhöhten und bereits nach 1,5 Stunden ein Maximum erreicht wurde. Verglichen mit dem Wert zu Beginn des Versuches waren die Transkriptmengen ca. 13-fach erhöht, sanken im weiteren Verlauf jedoch wieder ab und blieben bei einer 4-fachen Transkriptmenge konstant. Mit der Erhöhung der Transkriptmenge ging auch eine Erhöhung der Prolinkonzentration einher, die ein Maximum von ca. 6 μmol/mg Protein nach 6 Stunden erreichte. Auch diese Konzentration verringerte sich im weiteren Verlauf wieder und erreichte nach 20 Stunden den Ausgangswert. 12. Um den Einfluß diverser Anionen bzw. Osmolyte im Medium auf die Produktion von Prolin zu untersuchen, wurden Zellsuspensionen von H. halophilus einer Erhöhung der Osmolarität von 0,8 M auf 2,0 M unterzogen. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass die maximale Akkumulation von Prolin in Anwesenheit von Chlorid am höchsten war. Nitrat und Glutamat führten zu ähnlichen, aber leicht geringeren maximalen Konzentrationen (92 bzw. 83% des Chloridwertes). Gluconat führte noch zu einer Akkumulation von ca. 51%, während die anderen Osmolyte zu keiner Akkumulation führten. Eine Analyse der Transkriptmengen zeigte jedoch ein völlig anderes Bild. Während Chlorid, Nitrat und Gluconat zu vergleichbaren Anstiegen der Transkripmengen führten, war die maximale Transkriptmenge der Glutamatinkubierten Zellen 3-9 mal höher als in Vergleichszellen mit Chlorid. In anschließenden Titrationsexperimenten mit verschiedenen Glutamatkonzentrationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine minimale Konzentration von 0,2 M Glutamat ausreichend ist, um eine 90-fache Steigerung der Transkriptmenge herbeizuführen. 13. Als Antwort auf Hochsalz-Bedingungen akkumuliert H. halophilus neben Prolin auch Ectoin. Die Ectoinkonzentration bei 2,5 M NaCl war ca. 2-3 mal höher als in Zellen, die bei 1,0 M gezogen wurden. Die Bestimmung der intrazellulären Ectoin-Konzentrationen während des Wachstums zeigte außerdem, dass die Produktion von Ectoin wachstumsphasenabhängig ist. Die Konzentration in der stationären Phase war ca. 5-fach höher als in der exponentiellen Phase. Die Entwicklung der Ectoin- Konzentration verhielt sich somit reziprok zur Entwicklung der Prolin-Konzentration während des Wachstums. 14. Es wurde ein Cluster von drei Genen im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert, deren Genprodukte die Biosynthese von Ectoin aus Aspartatsemialdehyd katalysieren. ectA kodiert dabei für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-Acetyltransferase, ectB für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-2-oxoglutarat-Transaminase und ectC für eine putative Ectoin-Synthase. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 15. Die Transkription der ect-Gene war abhängig von der Salinität des Mediums. Ab 2,0 M stieg die Menge an RNA um das 10-fache an und erreichte bei 3,0 M ein Maximum mit der 23,5-fachen Menge. 16. Nach einem osmotischen Schock stieg die Konzentration an ect-mRNA signifikant und erreichte ein Maximum nach 3 - 4 Stunden. Das Maximum wurde somit 1,5 – 2,5 Stunden später erreicht als bei anderen Genen der Solute-Biosynthese wie etwa gdh1, das für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase, glnA2, das für eine Glutamin-Synthetase oder proH, das für eine Pyrrolin-5-Carboxylase kodiert. Die maximal erreichten Wert lagen 13-fach (ectA), 6,5-fach (ectB) und 3-fach (ectC) über dem Wert vor dem Salzschock. Gegen EctC wurden polyklonale Antikörper generiert. Western-Blot Analysen mit diesem Antikörper zeigten, dass die EctC-Menge nach 4 Stunden um das 2,5-fache stieg, dann aber wieder abfiel auf das 1,6 – 1,7-fache des Ausgangswertes. Der Rückgang an EctC fand keine Entsprechung in der gemessenen Ectoin-Konzentration, welche über einen Zeitraum von 18 Stunden kontinuierlich anstieg. Die maximale Konzentration nach 18 Stunden betrug das ca. 6,3-fache des Ausgangswertes. 17. Wurden H. halophilus Zellen mit anderen Osmolyten außer NaCl geschockt, so ergab sich folgendes Bild der Regulation der Ectoin-Biosynthese: (i) die Transkription der ect-Gene zeigte keine Chlorid-abhängige Regulation. Die maximale Transkriptmenge wurde in Gegenwart von Nitrat erreicht, wohingegen Gluconat zu vergleichbachen mRNA-Mengen führte wie Chlorid. Glutamat führte nur zu schwacher Stimulierung der Transkription. (ii) auf Ebene der Proteinmenge war zu sehen, dass die Menge an EctC nach osmotischem Schock vergleichbar war in Zellen, die mit Chlorid oder Nitrat inkubiert wurden. Gluconat führte nur zu einer 40%-igen Zunahme während andere Osmolyte nahezu wirkungslos auf die Menge an EctC blieben. (iii) die höchste Akkumulation an Ectoin nach einer plötzlichen Erhöhung der Osmolarität wurde erreicht mit Chlorid (6-fache Zunahme) gefolgt von Nitrat (5,6-fache Zunahme). Gluconat führte lediglich zu einer 3,3-fachen und Glutamat nur noch zu einer 2-fachen Steigerung der Ectoinkonzentration. Glutamat hat somit ähnliche Effekte wie Tartrat, Saccharose oder Sulfat. Succinat führte zu keiner Akkumulation und Glycin sogar zu einer deutlichen Abnahme. Die Produktion von Ectoin ist somit hauptsächlich abhängig vom Anion/Osmolyt und nur untergeordnet von der Osmolarität.
Algae as primary producers are highly important in aquatic ecosystems and provide a variety of environmental and anthropogenic services. In small lotic ecosystems in agriculturally influenced landscapes, algae are often the main constituent of the base of the food web and they contribute considerably to biodiversity. Within these small lotic ecosystems, algae are influenced by both natural stressors, such as flow regime and dry-out events, and anthropogenic factors. Agricultural practices especially influence algal communities by introducing plant protection products (PPP) and fertilizers into the water. The impacts of these exposures and how they affect planktonic algae in particular are not yet well studied in small lotic ecosystems. However, the protection of algae as primary producers is of high relevance and was thus included in official biomonitoring programs such as the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) or in risk assessment of e.g. PPPs. Hence, this thesis addresses this knowledge gap and links new information on algal communities in small lotic ecosystems with biomonitoring and risk assessment.
Data was gathered from small ditches and streams in central Germany as well as from laboratory algal assays. A technique to rapidly classify and quantify planktonic and benthic algae based on their photopigment concentration (measured via delayed fluorescence - DF) in ecological and ecotoxicological studies was assessed, both in the laboratory and in the field. This research provides insight into planktonic and benthic algal communities in small streams and ditches in order to improve management and protection strategies in the face of increased agricultural chemical input. ...
The Southern Ocean (SO) is one of the most pristine regions of our Planet, characterised by high levels of biodiversity (5% of the global diversity) (David and Saucède 2015) and hosting a unique fauna (up to 90% of SO species are endemic) (De Broyer and Danis 2011; Chown et al. 2015). Yet, the knowledge on SO biodiversity is still far from being completed. In addition, the knowledge on the impact that changing environments have on SO species-richness is very little and for some groups, it is still totally unknown. For instance, most of studies generally focus on one single species such as Antarctic krill (Kawaguchi et al. 2011), Clio pyramidata Linnaeus, 1767 (Orr et al. 2005), Globigerina bulloides d'Orbigny, 1826 (Moy et al. 2009), or only on a high taxonomic level (e.g. phylum, class): Echinodermata, Crustacea, Mollusca, Porifera, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Hydrozoa, Ascidiacea, Holoturoidea
(Barnes 1999; Rowden et al. 2015; Post et al. 2017; Gutt et al. 2019; Vause et al. 2019; Pineda-Metz et al. 2020). Ultimately, the influence of sea-ice coverage on benthic species diversity was totally unknown prior to this study. In light of this, the objectives of the thesis are:
1. To expand the knowledge on shelf and deep-sea peracarid assemblage structure and abundance on a small regional (Weddell Sea) and on a large regional (Atlantic sector of the SO and South Atlantic Ocean) geographic scale.
2. To assess the environmental variables driving peracarid assemblage structure and abundance from the above mentioned areas.
3. To investigate SO benthic isopod species diversity from the Atlantic sector of the SO and assess the influence of environmental variables on their species-richness and composition.
4. To describe new possible peracarid species by means of integrative taxonomy, using morphological descriptions and whole genome sequencing analyses to support the species identification.
Objective outcomes: The present thesis provides new information on the abundance and assemblage structure based on 64766 peracarid crustaceans from different 28 locations within the Atlantic sector of the SO continental shelf and deep sea (Chapters I-II). These locations are characterised by different environmental conditions, for instance different sea-ice concentrations. Results from Chapters I-II confirmed the dominance of peracarid assemblages in the benthos, with amphipods being the most abundant group, followed by isopods. Sea ice was identified as the main driver shaping benthic peracarid assemblage structure (Chapter I). On a larger geographic scale and wider bathymetric range (e.g. including sampling locations from previous studies performed in the South Atlantic Ocean
and at a depth range from 160 to ~6000 m), depth was the main physical variable driving peracarid assemblage structure (Chapter III). In addition, 16157 isopod specimens from the Atlantic sector of the SO were identified to species level at a smaller scale (Chapter IV). In this case, sea ice was identified as the main physical driver affecting isopod diversity and composition among sampling locations (Chapter IV). Reduced concentration of sea ice
causes a decrease in isopod biodiversity, thus climate change was identified as a huge threat for this taxon and for SO benthos in general. During the identification process, two new isopod species were discovered (Chapter V). The two new species (Notopais sp.1 n. sp. and Notopais sp.2 n. sp.) were accurately described and identified by means of integrative taxonomy. This provided the first whole genome sequencing of benthic isopods from the SO and the first complete mitochondrial genome of the genus Notopais (Chapter V). Thanks to the collaboration with the University of Genoa (Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra dell'Ambiente e della Vita, DISTAV, Italy) and the National Antarctic Museum (MNA) in Genoa, two new SO species of the suborder Valvifera G. O. Sars, 1883 were described by means of classical taxonomy. In this case, a molecular approach could not be used because both new species were represented by a single specimen, therefore it was important to preserve the integrity of the holotypes (Chapters VI-VII).