Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (48)
Has Fulltext
- yes (48)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (48)
Keywords
Unter den weltweit in ständigem Gebrauch befindlichen Chemikalien befinden sich nicht nur Verbindungen mit akuter toxischer Wirkung, sondern auch solche mit Wirkung auf das endokrine System. Eine große Rolle spielt hier vor allem die Störung der Geschlechtsdifferenzierung und der Reproduktion, ausgelöst durch natürliche oder synthetische Chemikalien mit endokrinem Potential, sogenannte endokrine Disruptoren (ED). Diese Chemikalien können über unterschiedliche Eintragspfade in die Umwelt gelangen. Seit Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts werden mehr und mehr Fälle bekannt, in denen anthropogene Chemikalien die Pflanzen- und Tierwelt belasten, darunter zahlreiche Befunde zu Störungen des Hormonsystems von Mensch und Tier.
Im Rahmen der Gefahren- und Risikobewertung steht bereits eine Vielzahl harmonisierter Prüfrichtlinien für die Identifizierung und Evaluierung der Effekte von (potentiellen) ED zur Verfügung. Um die Gesamtheit aller potentiellen Interaktionen von ED mit dem Hormonsystem detektieren zu können, ist die In-vivo-Untersuchung an Vertebraten in der Chemikalienregistrierung bisher unabdingbar. Bei der Untersuchung endokriner Potentiale in höheren Vertebraten spielen vor allem nager- und vogelbasierte Testsysteme eine wichtige Rolle. Diese bergen jedoch einen hohen zeitlichen, personellen und finanziellen Aufwand und erfordern eine massive Zahl an Versuchstieren, die für diese Tests benötigt werden. Darüber hinaus beinhalten Tierversuche eine Vielzahl von Problemen einschließlich ethischer Bedenken, die sich als Konsequenz der Tierhaltung unter Versuchsbedingungen ergeben. Ein sehr interessanter und vielversprechender Ansatz zur Reduktion von Tierversuchen ist die Entwicklung eines standardisierten Verfahrens für die Untersuchung potentieller ED in Vogelembryonen. Auf Vogelembryonen basierende In-ovo-Modelle stellen einen Mittelweg zwischen In-vitro- und In-vivo-Testsystemen dar. Mit dem Vogeleitest wird der sich entwickelnde Embryo, das für ED sensitivste Entwicklungsstadium im Leben eines Organismus, berücksichtigt.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Entwicklung und Eignungsuntersuchung eines auf dem Embryo des Haushuhns (Gallus gallus domesticus) basierenden Testsystems für den Nachweis von ED. Das resultierende Testsystem soll als Alternativmethode zu bisher etablierten nager- und vogelbasierten Testsystemen für die Untersuchung der Effekte hormonell aktiver Substanzen auf die Geschlechtsdifferenzierung in höheren Wirbeltieren eingesetzt werden.
Die im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation durchgeführten Arbeiten umfassten sowohl die Charakterisierung der Normalentwicklung des Hühnerembryos, unbeeinflusst durch ED, als auch die morphologisch-histologischen Veränderungen der Gonaden von substanzexponierten Embryonen. Für die Untersuchung substanzbedingter Effekte, welche den Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit darstellen, wurden die Embryonen gegenüber verschiedenen (anti)estrogenen und (anti)androgenen Substanzen exponiert. Unter Einfluss der Estrogene Bisphenol A (BPA) und 17α-Ethinylestradiol (EE2) entwickelten sich die Keimdrüsen der Männchen zu Ovotestes, während Weibchen ein Ovar mit deutlich schmalerem Cortex ausbildeten. Unter Einfluss der Antiestrogene Fulvestrant und Tamoxifen blieben Effekte auf die Gonaden männlicher Embryonen aus, eine durch das potente Estrogen EE2 hervorgerufene Feminisierung männlicher Gonaden konnte durch beide Substanzen jedoch effektiv antagonisiert werden. Weibchen bilden unter Einfluss von Tamoxifen deutlich schmalere linke Gonaden mit einem missgebildeten Cortex aus. Unter Einfluss der Androgene Tributylzinn (TBT) und 17α-Methyltestosteron (MT) blieben die Effekte auf männliche Embryonen aus, während die Weibchen anatomisch virilisierte Gonaden und eine Reduktion des linken gonadalen Cortex aufwiesen. Allein die untersuchten antiandrogenen Versuchssubstanzen Cyproteronacetat (CPA), Flutamid und p,p´-Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethen (p,p´-DDE) hatten keinen Effekt auf die gonadale Geschlechtsdifferenzierung männlicher und weiblicher Hühnerembryonen.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Embryo von G. gallus domesticus einen sensitiven Organismus innerhalb des Tierreichs darstellt und hinreichend sensitiv auf eine Reihe von endokrin wirksamen und reproduktionstoxischen Chemikalien reagiert. Anatomische und histologische Änderungen der Gonaden können daher als Biomarker für die Wirkung von ED bei Vögeln nützlich sein. Die untersuchten Endpunkte beziehen sich jedoch auf apikale Effekte und liefern keine mechanistischen Informationen zu den untersuchten Substanzen. Der
Hühnereitest ist eine sinnvolle Ergänzung zur bestehenden OECD-Testbatterie und zeichnet sich besonders durch seine kostengünstige und einfache Handhabung im Labor sowie einfach durchzuführende Tests aus. Durch die vergleichsweise kurze Versuchsdauer von nur 19 Tagen ist ein schnelles Substanzscreening möglich, welches zeitlich deutliche Vorteile gegenüber den etablierten nager- und vogelbasierten Testsystemen hat. Als Alternative zu bisherigen Assays könnte der vorgeschlagene Hühnereitest dazu beitragen, im Rahmen der (öko)toxikologischen Gefährdungs- und Risikobewertung von Chemikalien künftig weniger Versuchstiere zu verwenden.
In almost all parts of the world the industrialisation grows continuously and thus, the chemical pollution of natural waters has become a major public concern. A major consequence and one of the key environmental problems we are facing today is the increasing contamination of freshwater systems with chemicals. The chemicals are detected in wastewater, surface (river) water, ground water and drinking water ubiquitously in natural waters and not only in industrialised areas. The main point sources for water pollution and the release of these synthetic organic substances of human origin, so called micropollutants (MPs), are wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). These MPs such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, disinfectant chemicals, chemicals used in the industry and in households, contraceptives, hormones, food additives, artificial sweeteners, pesticides, biocides, and many emerging contaminants are only incompletely removed by the existing conventional wastewater treatment technologies. The MPs end up in the water cycle and have adverse effects on wildlife aquatic ecosystems and human health even at very low concentrations. Therefore, advanced wastewater treatment (AWWT) technologies, such as ozonation, treatment with activated carbon, biofiltration, membrane bioreactors (MBRs) or exposure to ultraviolet light are investigated as options to upgrade conventional WWTPs. However, several studies show that especially the ozonation of wastewater generates diverse transformation products (TPs) with unknown properties. These TPs could be more toxic than the mother compound. Thus, a post-treatment after the ozonation process is required.
The present thesis was part of the BMBF-funded TransRisk project dealing with “the characterisation, communication, and minimisation of risks of emerging pollutants and pathogens in the water cycle”. One main objective was the investigation of conventional treated wastewater after a full-scale ozonation with four post-treatments (each non-aerated and aerated granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration and biofiltration) in comparison to a MBR treatment of raw (untreated) wastewater separately and in combination with an additional ozonation on a pilot WWTP. For this purpose, the wastewater samples were characterised with a comprehensive battery of in vitro and in vivo bioassays. The in vitro bioassays were performed to detect endocrine activities (such as (anti)estrogenic and (anti)androgenic activities), genotoxicity, and mutagenicity. The results showed a decreased estrogenic activity due to the conventional wastewater treatment as well as the ozonation, but a distinct increase of the anti-estrogenic activity and the mutagenicity in the ozonated wastewater, possibly caused by new formed TPs, that were reduced after the post-treatments whereas the GAC filtration performed better than the biofiltration. The in vivo bioassays included for example the impact of the wastewater on mortality, reproduction, development, and energy reserves of the test organisms. The in vivo on-site tests with the mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum and with the amphipod Gammarus fossarum indicated a major impact of conventional treated wastewater, ozonated wastewater, and MBR treated wastewater. The flow channel experiments in the laboratory with Gammarus pulex pointed to a serious impact of an estrogenic effluent on life-history traits of the amphipod. Finally, an ozonation of the wastewater with subsequent GAC filtration represented the most promising option. In addition, chemical analyses of 40 selected MPs, so called tracer substances, performed in parallel to the in vitro and in vivo bioassays underlined this assumption.
A second main objective was the optimisation of the preparation of water and wastewater samples for ecotoxicological in vitro bioassays because common sample preparation techniques are predominantly adapted for chemical analyses. Therefore, the impact of sample filtration, long-term acidification with following neutralisation as well as the enrichment with solid phase extraction (SPE) in combination with short-term acidification were investigated using amongst others raw (untreated) wastewater, hospital wastewater, conventional treated and ozonated wastewater, surface water, and ground water. Overall, eleven in vitro bioassays were performed for the detection of endocrine activities, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity. The results show that sample filtration and acidification/neutralisation significantly affected the outcome of the bioassays especially the anti-estrogenic activity and the mutagenicity whereas the sample filtration had a minor impact than the acidification. Thus, the testing of untreated (waste)water samples is advisable because the sample is minimally processed. Furthermore, the SPE extracts showed in parts high cytotoxic effects whereby no conclusions on the results of the bioassays were possible. However, the enrichment of endocrine activity and mutagenicity was predominantly effective but depended on the used SPE cartridge and the pH value of the (waste)water samples. Based on the results the use of a Telos C18/ENV cartridge and an acidified sample is recommendable. In the end, there is a need to optimise the sample preparation for in vitro bioassays to reach their maximum outcome for the best possible assessment of the water quality.
Weltweit werden etwa 17% aller Infektionskrankheiten von Vektoren auf den Menschen übertragen. Dabei dienen meist blutsaugende Arthropoden wie Stechmücken, Zecken oder Sandfliegen als Überträger von Bakterien, Viren oder einzelligen Parasiten. Zur letzteren Gruppe gehört auch der protozoische Erreger der Chagas-Krankheit Trypanosoma cruzi. Er wird von hämatophagen Triatominae, einer Unterfamilie der Raubwanzen (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) während der Blutmahlzeit an einem infizierten Säugerwirt aufgenommen, durchläuft komplexe Entwicklungsschritte im intestinalen Trakt der triatominen Insekten und wird anschließend über den Fäzes und Urin der Wanzen abgegeben. Die Infektion des nächsten Wirts erfolgt dann durch das versehentliche Einreiben der Erreger in die Stichwunde oder auf Schleimhäute. Auch eine Infektion über die orale Aufnahme von kontaminierter Nahrung, Mutter-Kind-Infektionen und die Übertragung durch Blutkonserven und Organtransplantate sind möglich. Die Chagas‑Krankheit, oder auch Amerikanische Trypanosomiasis, ist insbesondere in Mittel- und Südamerika verbreitet und betrifft nach Schätzungen der WHO 6 bis 7 Millionen Menschen. Infolge von globaler Immigration und erhöhtem Reiseverkehr treten jedoch in den letzten Jahrzehnten auch vermehrt Fälle in Europa, den USA, Kanada und den westlichen Pazifikstaaten auf. Da dort bislang geeignete Vektoren fehlen, kommt es außerhalb des lateinamerikanischen Kontinents nicht zu vektorübertragenen Infektionen. Dies könnte sich jedoch im Zuge des Klimawandels und einer voranschreitenden Globalisierung ändern, sollte der Ausbreitung der Chagas-Krankheit eine Ausbreitung ihrer triatominen Vektoren folgen.
Inwieweit Triatominae unter heutigen Bedingungen klimatisch geeignete Habitate außerhalb des amerikanischen Kontinents finden, wurde innerhalb des ersten Projekts der vorliegenden Dissertation untersucht. Dazu wurde mit Hilfe der ökologischen Nischenmodellierung und Vorkommensdaten verschiedener vektorkompetenter Raubwanzenarten sowie klimatischer Umweltvariablen die klimatische Eignung verschiedenster Lebensräume modelliert und global projiziert. Es zeigte sich, dass insbesondere tropische und subtropische Gebiete Afrikas sowie Ost- und Südostasiens zwischen 21° nördlicher Breite und 24° südlicher Breite für viele triatomine Vektorarten geeignete Bedingungen aufweisen. Auffällig ist dabei insbesondere die Art Triatoma rubrofasciata, welche nachweislich bereits in Südchina, Vietnam und weiteren Ländern Afrikas und Asiens gefunden wurde. Die Modellierung
offenbarte, dass weitere ausgedehnte Teile der Küstenregionen Afrikas und Südostasiens als für T. rubrofasciata klimatisch geeignet angesehen werden müssen. Eine weitere Ausbreitung dieser Art ist demnach äußerst wahrscheinlich und stellt bislang das größte Risiko autochthon übertragener Chagas-Infektionen außerhalb des amerikanischen Kontinents dar. Es konnten außerdem zwei triatomine Arten identifiziert werden, namentlich T. infestans und T. sordida, welche in gemäßigten Klimazonen geeignete Habitate finden. Zu diesen gehören beispielsweise Neuseeland und Teile Australiens, aber auch südeuropäische Länder wie Spanien, Italien, Griechenland und Portugal. Da mit einer Ausweitung der klimatisch geeigneten Gebiete infolge des sich verändernden Klimas zu rechnen ist, wäre ein Monitoring der Vektoren, wie es bereits in Südchina etabliert ist, aber insbesondere die Einführung der Meldepflicht für Amerikanische Trypanosomiasis in diesen Regionen sinnvoll. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen deutlich, dass die bisher vernachlässigte Tropenkrankheit Chagas nicht allein ein Problem des lateinamerikanischen Kontinents ist, sondern deren Erforschung vielmehr weltweit Beachtung finden sollte.
So konzentrierten sich die folgenden Forschungsprojekte der Promotion verstärkt auf die Mechanismen, welche die Entwicklung und Transmission des Parasiten und die Interaktion mit seinen Vektoren betreffen. Von besonderem Interesse waren dabei die ökologischen Prozesse, welche bei der Kolonisation des Darmtrakts der Vektoren durch T. cruzi ablaufen und essentiell für die Proliferation und damit die Übertragung des Parasiten sind. Eine entscheidende Rolle spielen dabei die mit dem Vektor assoziierten Mikroorganismen und ihre funktionellen Fähigkeiten – zusammengefasst als Mikrobiom bezeichnet. Dieses erfüllt wichtige physiologische Funktionen des Insekts und kann beispielsweise das Immunsystem und die Detoxifikation beeinflussen. Um die Veränderungen der organismischen Zusammensetzung und der funktionellen Kapazitäten, welche die Infektion mit dem Pathogen im Darmtrakt der Vektoren auslösen, zu untersuchen, wurde ein metagenomischer Shotgun Sequenzierungsansatz gewählt. Die daraus resultierenden Datensätze wurden anschließend bioinformatisch ausgewertet und auf ihre mikrobielle Zusammensetzung und metabolischen Fähigkeiten hin untersucht. Es zeigte sich zunächst, dass das Bakterium Rhodococcus rhodnii, welches lange als alleiniger echter Symbiont des untersuchten Vektors Rhodnius prolixus galt, in seiner Funktionalität nicht einzigartig im Mikrobiom des Insekts ist. ...
The intensive use of the North Sea area through offshore activities, sand mining, and the spreading of dredged material is leading to increasing pollution of the ecosystem by chemicals such as hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs). Due to their toxicological properties and their ability to accumulate in the environment, HOCs are of particular concern. The contaminants partition between aqueous (pore water, overlying water) and solid phases (sediment, suspended particulate matter, and biota) within these systems. The accumulated contaminants in the sediment are of major concern for benthic organisms, who are in close contact with sediment and interstitial water. It is thus particularly important to better understand how contaminants interact with biota, as these animals may contribute to trophic transfer through the food web. Furthermore, sediments are a crucial factor for the water quality of aquatic systems. They not only represent a sink for contaminants but also determine environmental fate, bioavailability, and toxicity. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) was introduced to protect our marine environment across Europe and includes the assessment of pollutant concentrations in the total sediment, which, however, rarely reflects the actual exposure situation. The consideration of the pollutant concentrations in the pore water is not implemented, although this is needed for the evaluation of bioavailability and risk assessment. For this reason, special attention is given to further development, implementation, and validation of pollutant monitoring methods that can determine the bioavailable fraction in sediment pore water. For risk assessment purposes, it is furthermore important to use biological indicators in addition to classical analytics to determine the effect of pollutants on organisms. The main objective of this thesis was to gain insight into the pollution load and the potential risk of hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) in the sediment of the North Sea and to evaluate these results with regard to possible risks for benthic organisms and the ecosystem. The following five aims are covered within these studies to gain a holistic assessment of sediment contamination:
1. Assessment of the pore water concentrations of PAHs and PCBs
2. Determination of the bioturbation potential by macrofauna analysis
3. Application of the SPME method on biological tissue
4. Assessment of recreated environmental mixtures in passive dosing bioassays
5. Development of SPME method for DDT in sediments
The thesis is comprised of three main studies supported by three additional studies ...
Regulatory required, classical toxicity studies for environmental hazard assessment are costly, time consuming, and often lack mechanistic insights about the toxic mode of action induced through a compound. In addition, classical toxicological non-human animal tests raise serious ethical concerns and are not well suited for high throughput screening approaches. Molecular biomarker-based screenings could be a suitable alternative for identifying particular hazardous effects (e.g. endocrine disruption, developmental neurotoxicity) in non-target organisms at the molecular level. This, however, requires a better mechanistic understanding of different toxic modes of action (MoA) to describe characteristic molecular key events and respective markers.
Ecotoxicgenomics, which uses modern day omic technologies and systems biology approaches to study toxicological responses at the molecular level, are a promising new way for elucidating
the processes through which chemicals cause adverse effects in environmental organisms. In this context, this PhD study was designated to investigate and describe MoA-characteristic
ecotoxicogenomic signatures in three ecotoxicologically important aquatic model organisms of different trophic levels (Danio rerio, Daphnia magna and Lemna minor).
Applying non-target transcriptomic and proteomic methodologies post chemical exposure, the aim was to identify robust functional profiles and reliable biomarker candidates with potential
predictive properties to allow for a differentiation among different MoA in these organisms. For the sublethal exposure studies in the zebrafish embryo model (96 hpf), the acute fish embryo toxicity test guideline (OECD 236) was used as conceptual framework. As different test compounds with known MoA, the thyroid hormone 3,3′,5-triiodothyronine (T3) and the thyrostatic 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (6-PTU), as well as six nerve- and muscle-targeting insecticides (abamectin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, imidacloprid and methoxychlor) were evaluated. Furthermore, a novel sublethal immune challenge assay in early zebrafish embryos (48 hpf) was evaluated for its potential to assess immuno-suppressive effects at the gene expression level. Therefore, toxicogenomic profiles after an immune response inducing stimulus with and without prior clobetasol propionate (CP) treatment were compared. For the aquatic invertebrate D. magna, the study was performed with previously determined low effect concentrations (EC5 & EC20) of fipronil and imidacloprid according to the acute immobilization test in water flea (OECD 202). The aim was to compare toxicogenomic signatures of the GABA-gated chloride channel blocker (fipronil) and the nAChR agonist (imidacloprid). With similar low effect concentrations, a shortened 3 day version of the growth inhibition test with L. minor (OECD 221) was conducted to find molecular profiles differentiating between photosynthesis and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitory effects. Here, the biological interpretation of the molecular stress response profiles in L. minor due to the lack of functional annotation of the reference genome was particularly challenging. Therefore, an annotation workflow was developed based on protein sequence homology predicted from the genomic reference sequences.
With this PhD work, it was shown how transcriptomic, proteomic and computational systems biology approaches can be coupled with aquatic toxicological tests, to gain important mechanistic insights into adverse effects at the molecular level. In general, for the different investigated adverse effects for the different organisms, biomarker candidates were identified, which describe a potential functional link between impaired gene expressions and previously reported apical effects. For the assessed chemicals in the zebrafish embryo model, biomarker candidates for thyroid disruption as well as developmental toxicity targeting the heart and central nervous system were described. The biomarkers derived from nerve- and muscletargeting insecticides were associated with three major affected processes: (1) cardiac muscle cell development and functioning, (2) oxygen transport and hypoxic stress and (3) neuronal development and plasticity. To our knowledge, this is the first study linking neurotoxic insecticide exposure and affected expression of important regulatory genes for heart muscle (tcap, actc2) and forebrain (npas4a) development in a vertebrate model. The proposed immunosuppression assay found CP to affect innate immune induction by attenuating the response of genes involved in antigen processing, TLR signalling, NF-КB signalling, and complement activation ...
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden unterschiedliche Aspekte der Verbreitung der Vertreter des Pseudoterranova decipiens Komplexes betrachtet und Fragestellungen zur Ökologie und Humanpathogenität der Parasiten bearbeitet. Sie basiert auf drei (ISI-) Fachartikeln, in denen die Nutzung von Fischparasitengemeinschaften als ökologische Indikatoren für entlegene Ökosysteme des Südpolarmeeres (I), die Modellierung geeigneter Verbreitungsgebiete für Arten mit geringen Vorkommensdaten am Beispiel des P. decipiens Komplexes (II) und das Vorkommen potentiell humanpathogener P. bulbosa in unterschiedlichen Mikrohabitaten in Atlantischem Kabeljau (III) thematisiert wurde.
Die Parasitengemeinschaften der in Studie I untersuchten, nahverwandten Antarktisdorsche (Nototheniinae) Nototheniops larseni (n=40), N. nudifrons (n=40) und Lepidonotothen squamifrons (n=49) unterschieden sich hauptsächlich hinsichtlich seltener Parasitenarten. Pseudoterranova decipiens E zählte zu den häufigsten Parasiten der drei betrachteten Wirtsarten. Die Analyse der Wirtsspektren der auf Artebene bestimmten Parasiten zeigte eine geringe Spezifität antarktischer Fischparasiten im Larven- (z.B. Pseudoterranova decipiens E) und Adultstadium (z.B. Elytrophalloides oatesi). Für eine Nutzung als Bioindikatoren ergibt sich die Empfehlung, nicht auf einzelne Parasitenarten, sondern die Zusammensetzung von Parasitenfaunen zurückzugreifen und Parameter wie Abundanz oder Intensität zu berücksichtigen. Vergleiche mit Literaturdaten legten nahe, dass ein Studiendesign, das den periodischen Vergleich der Parasitierungsmuster von Nototheniinae ermöglichen soll, Standorteffekte berücksichtigen sollte. Da es sich bei der Probennahme demersaler Fische um ein aufwändiges und einschneidendes Verfahren handelt, sollten alternative Samplingmethoden vorangetrieben und eine Datenbasis dafür geschaffen werden.
Um die Belastung von Speisefischen mit potentiell humanpathogenen Parasiten in bestimmten Fanggebieten abzuschätzen, kann anhand von Vorkommens- und Umweltdaten mittels statistischer Modelle die Habitateignung für den Parasiten bestimmt werden. Eine Voraussetzung für eine verlässliche Modellierung bilden die Wahl eines geeigneten Algorithmus und die Qualität der Eingangsdaten. Für die Modellierung geeigneter Verbreitungsgebiete für die sechs Arten des P. decipiens Komplexes wurde im Rahmen von Studie II erstmalig ein biotischer Deskriptor herangezogen. Dem Ansatz lag die Annahme zugrunde, dass das Vorkommen geeigneter Endwirte der entscheidende, limitierende Faktor für die Verbreitung eines Parasiten ist, da nur so der Lebenszyklus geschlossen werden kann. Als Hypothesentest dienten Vergleiche der ökologischen Nischen von Parasiten und ihren spezifischen Endwirten im Nischenraum. Anhand der Endwirtdistanz wurde eine Verbesserung der Modellierungsergebnisse mit MaxEnt, gegenüber der ausschließlich auf abiotischen Prädiktoren basierenden Modellierung, für alle Pseudoterranova Arten, insbesondere jene mit einer geringen Anzahl Fundpunkte, erzielt. Grundsätzlich ist der Ansatz auf marine Parasitenarten, deren spezifische Endwirte verlässliche Vorkommensdaten aufweisen, übertragbar. Die Methode stellt jedoch keinen Ersatz für die Erhebung von Vorkommensdaten dar, weshalb die genetische Bestimmung schwer zu identifizierender Taxa sowie die Angabe von Metadaten in jeder parasitologischen Studie obligatorisch sein sollten.
Die Verteilung potentiell humanpathogener Parasitenstadien in für den menschlichen Verzehr vorgesehenen Fischen kann ein entscheidender Faktor für die Übertragung sein. Im Rahmen von Studie III wurde mit dem Referenztranskriptom von P. bulbosa das erste Transkriptom für eine Art den P. decipiens Komplexes erstellt. Anhand einer differentiellen Genexpressionsanalyse wurde untersucht, was die Verteilung der Parasiten auf unterschiedliche Mikrohabitate beeinflusst haben könnte. Dabei wurden siebzig differentiell exprimierte Gene identifiziert, die in aus Leber (32 Gene) und Viscera (38 Gene) von Atlantischem Kabeljau (Gadus morhua) isolierten Proben von P. bulbosa hochreguliert waren. Eine Erklärung für diesen subtilen Unterschied könnte ein Dauerstadium der P. bulbosa Larven zum Zeitpunkt der Probennahmen sein. Ob sich bestimmte Mikrohabitate innerhalb des Wirtes begünstigend auf den Parasiten auswirken, muss mit Hilfe experimenteller Studien gezeigt werden. Erste in Studie III erhobene Daten zum allergenen Potential von P. bulbosa sollten in serologischen Studien getestet werden. Als Grundlage für die Bewertung des pathogenen Potentials von P. bulbosa, sowie der weiteren Arten des P. decipiens Komplexes, sollten in experimentellen Studien NGS-Daten erhoben werden.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde in drei methodisch unterschiedlichen Studien ein Bedarf besserer Referenzdaten aufgezeigt. Bestreben diese Datenlücken zu schließen, um das Potential der Methoden besser ausschöpfen zu können, müssen zukünftig noch weiter verstärkt werden.
Plastic pollution is a pervasive problem. In the environment, both the physical and chemical aspects of the material contribute to pollution. For instance, discarded plastic is useless waste that is fragmented upon degradation and so-called microplastics <5 mm are formed. Besides, the chemicals added into plastics are usually customized for specific functions, but these can easily transfer from the polymer into an ambient medium. This work examined both of these aspects. Moreover, the question of whether ecotoxicological effects are more likely to appear because of the microparticle properties or the chemicals transferring from the microplastics was addressed. A special focus was laid on the UV-weathering-induced chemical release.
First, conventional and biodegradable plastics made from fossil and bio-based resources were chosen. The different materials (pre-production and recycled pellets as well as final products)were weathered and their leachates evaluated in vitro. The leachates were analyzed with nontarget screening in order to measure the number of transferred chemicals. Plastics identified as toxic were subjected to further investigations in vivo. A biodegradable shampoo bottle was processed to microplastics and the particles’ physical and chemical properties were assessed with the freshwater worm Lumbriculus variegatus. Here, commonly used endpoints such as mortality, reproduction and weight were tested via different exposure routes. Moreover, the freshwater shrimp Neocaridina palmata was exposed to microplastic beads and fragments to clarify if the shape of the particles affects the ingestion and egestion, respectively. Thereafter, two materials that displayed the strongest toxic responses in vitro within the first study were weathered and leached. Finally, the shrimps were exposed to the leachates and the locomotor behavior was used as an ecologically relevant but less frequently studied endpoint.
The results of the studies highlight that plastics are chemically complex mixtures, containing a wide range of chemicals in terms of the number and functionality. These chemicals induced oxidative stress, baseline toxicity and endocrine activities. This shows that pellets represent a processing state that comprises chemically heterogenous materials. Moreover, it was shown that a degradation initiator is not necessarily relevant to trigger inherent substances to leach out from plastics. Despite this, the UV-weathering resulted in increasingly released chemicals and exacerbated the in vitro toxicities. Even plastics assessed as toxicologically harmless prior to weathering released toxic chemical mixtures once they were weathered. One recycled and all of the biodegradable plastics were toxicologically most concerning. This means that such materials are currently not better than conventional, virgin plastics in terms of their toxicity.
To clarify the source of the microplastic toxicity, L. variegatus was exposed to biodegradable microplastics. The particles were ingested by the worms and adversely affected the examined endpoints. In comparison, microplastics that were depleted from their chemicals via a solvent treatment were less toxic. Kaolin as a natural particle control was evaluated alongside and positively affected the weight of the worms. This emphasizes the ecological relevance of fine-sized matter for the test species. The chemicals extracted from the microplastics induced a 100% mortality. A chemical analysis of the material revealed two ecotoxicologically relevant biocides. The physically-mediated effects of the microplastics seemed to be less of a concern for the worms, which is probably linked to their adaptation to high concentrations of naturally occurring particles in the environment. However, the effects related to the chemicals of plastic cannot be ignored, especially for materials that are claimed to be environmentally friendly.
In the third study, the role of the particle shape in the gut passaging of N. palmata was studied. While the particle size was a determinant factor for the ingestion, the ingestion and egestion of the beads and fragments did not differ, respectively. The shrimps ingested less fragments when food was provided than in the absence of food. As for the worms, the shrimps are known to ingest many naturally occurring particles. Their unselective feeding behavior towards the particle shape could indicate that microplastics as a physical pollutant are negligible for the shrimps. That is why the chemicals of the two most toxic in vitro materials were tested with N. palmata. However, no trend towards elevated or reduced movements of the shrimps was observed, even though the leachates contained baseline toxicants. This shows that the in vitro toxicities of plastics are not necessarily indicative for effects to occur at the in vivo level...
Clean water is fundamental to human health and ecosystem integrity. However, water quality deteriorates due to novel anthropogenic pollutants present at microgram per liter concentrations in urban water cycles (termed micropollutants). Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) have been identified as major point sources for aquatic (micro-)pollutants. Chemical and ecotoxicological analyses have shown that conventional biological WWTPs do not fully remove micropollutants and associated toxicities, which is often because of mobile, polar and/or recalcitrant compounds and transformation products (TPs). To minimize possible environmental risks, advanced wastewater treatment (AWWT) technologies could be a promising mitigation measure. Multiple processes are therefore being developed and evaluated such as ozonation and ozonation followed by granulated activated carbon (GAC) or biological filtration. Assessing the performance of these combined AWWTs was the focus the TransRisk project. Within this project, this thesis accomplished four major goals.
Firstly, the preparation of (waste)water samples was optimised for in vitro bioassays. Acidification, filtration and solid phase extraction (SPE) were tested for their impact on environmentally relevant in vitro endocrine activities, mutagenicity, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. Significantly different outcomes of these assays were detected comparing neutral and acidified samples. Sample filtration had a lesser impact, but in some cases retention of particle-bound compounds could have caused significant toxicity losses. Out of three SPE sorbents the Telos C18/ENV at sample pH 2.5 extracted highest toxicity, some undetected in aqueous samples. These results indicate that sample preparation needs to be optimised for specific sample matrices and bioassays to avoid false-positive or -negative detects in effect-based analyses.
Secondly, the above listed in vitro toxicities were monitored in a protected region for drinking water production in South-West Germany (2012-2015). Out of 30 sampling sites surface water and groundwater were the least polluted. Nonetheless, a few groundwater samples induced high anti-estrogenic activity that prompted further monitoring. The latter included a waterworks in which no toxicity was detected. Hospital wastewater also had elevated in vitro toxicities and hospitals are, thus, relevant intervention points for source control. The biological WWTPs were effective in removing most of the detected toxicity, and the selected bioassays proved to be pertinent tools for water quality assessment and prioritisation of pollution hotspots.
Thirdly, the in vivo bioassay ISO10872 based on Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was adapted for this thesis. Using this model, a median effect concentration (EC50) for reproductive toxicity of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon β-naphthoflavone (β- NF) of 114 µg/L was computed which is slightly lower than reported in the scientific literature. β-NF induced cyp-35A3::GFP (a biomarker in transgenic animals) in a time and concentration dependent manner (≤ 21.3–24 fold above controls). β-NF spiked wastewater samples supported earlier hypotheses on particle-bound pollutants. Reproductive toxicity (96 h) and cyp-35A3 induction (24 h) of biologically treated and/or ozonated wastewater extracts and growth promoting effects of GAC/biologically filtered ozonated wastewater extracts were observed. This suggested the presence of residual bioactive/toxic chemicals not included in the targeted chemical analysis. It also highlighted the importance of integrating multiple (apical and molecular) endpoints in wastewater assessments.
Fourthly, five in vitro and the adapted C. elegans bioassay were integrated into a wastewater quality evaluation (developed within TransRisk). Out of the five AWWT options, ozonation (at 1 g O3,applied/g DOC, HRT ~ 18 min) combined with nonaerated GAC filtration was rated most effective for toxicity removal. All five AWWTs largely removed estrogenic and (anti-)androgenic activities, but not anti-estrogenic activity and mutagenicity, which even increased during ozonation. This has been observed in related studies and points towards toxic TPs. These results also emphasized the need for implementing an effective post-treatment for ozonation. The results from a parallel in vivo study with Lumbriculus variegatus and Potamopyrgus antipodarum conducted on site at the WWTP (using flow through systems) were in accordance with the C. elegans results. In this context, it is suggested to further implement C. elegans as sensitive, feasible and ecologically relevant model.
In conclusion, this thesis shows how optimised sample preparation, long-term (in vitro) environmental monitoring, sensitive and ecologically relevant (in vivo) bioassays as well as innovative evaluation concepts, are pivotal in improving the removal of micropollutants and their toxicities with AWWTs. Future research should further develop and evaluate measures at sewer systems, conventional biological, tertiary and other advanced treatment technologies, as well as sociopolitical strategies (e.g., source control or natural conservation) and restoration projects. The effect-based tools optimised in this thesis will support assessing their success.
In the past decades, the use and production of chemicals has been on the rise globally due to increasing industrialization and intensive agriculture; resulting in the occurrence and ecotoxicological risks of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) in the aquatic compartments. Risks include changes in community structure resulting in the dominance of one species and ecosystem imbalance. When dominant disease-causing organisms are in the environment, the disease transmission is increased. For example, host snails for the schistosomiasis, a human trematode disease, are known to be tolerant to pesticide
exposure compared to the predators. This would therefore result in an increased abundance of snails which consequently increase the disease transmission in the human population.
Kenya, being a low income country faces a lot of challenges with provision of clean water, diseases and sanitation facilities, and increasing population which results in intensive agriculture coupled with pesticide use. Although a lot of research has been carried out on the environmental occurrence and risk of CECs (Chapter 1), most of these studies have been done in developed countries with limited information from Africa. Additionally, research in Africa focused on urban areas with limited number of compounds analyzed and mostly in the water phase, and inadequate information on the effects of CECs on the aquatic organisms. In order to reduce this knowledge gap, this dissertation focused on identification and quantification of CECs present in water, sediment and snails from western Kenya, and the contribution of pesticides to the transmission of schistosomiasis.
Chapter 2 gives a summary of the results and discussion of the dissertation. In Chapter 3, a comprehensive chemical analysis was carried out on 48 water samples to identify compounds, spatial patterns and associated risks for fish, crustacean and algae using toxic unit (TU) approach. A total of 78 compounds were detected with pesticides and biocides being the compounds most frequently detected. Spatial pattern analysis revealed limited compound grouping based on land use. Acute risk for crustaceans and algae were driven by one to three individual compounds. These compounds responsible for toxicity were prioritized as candidate compounds for monitoring and regulation in Kenya.
In Chapter 4, an extension of Chapter 3 was done to cover the CECs present in snails and sediment from the 48 sites. A total of 30 compounds were found in snails and 78 in sediments with 68 additional compounds being found which were not previously detected in water. Higher contaminant concentrations were found in agricultural sites than in areas without anthropogenic activities. The highest acute toxicity (TU 0.99) was determined for crustaceans based on compounds in sediment samples. The risk was driven by diazinon and pirimiphos-methyl. Acute and chronic risks to algae were driven by diuron whereas fish were found to be at low to no acute risk.
In Chapter 5, the effect of pesticide contamination on schistosomiasis transmission was evaluated by applying complimentary laboratory and field studies. In the field studies, the ecological mechanisms through which pesticides and physical chemical parameters affect host snails, predators and competitors were investigated. Pesticide data was obtained from the results in chapter 3. The overall distribution of grazers and predators was not affected by pesticide pollution. However, within the grazers, pesticide pollution increased dominance of host snails. On the contrary, the host-snail competitors were highly sensitive to pesticide exposure. For the laboratory studies, macroinvertebrates including Schistosoma-host snails, competitors and predators were exposed to 6 concentrations levels of imidacloprid and diazinon. Snails showed higher insecticide tolerance compared to competitors and predators. Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes the conclusions of this dissertation, placing it in a broader
context. In this dissertation, a comprehensive chemical characterization and risk assessment of CECs has been carried out in freshwater systems; together with the effects of pesticides on schistosomiasis transmission in rural western Kenya. Results of this dissertation showed that rural areas are contaminated posing a risk to aquatic organisms which contribute to schistosomiasis transmission. This shows the need for regular monitoring and policy formulation to reduce pollutant emissions which contributes negatively to both ecological and human health effects.
Plastics contain a complex mixture of chemicals including polymers, additives, starting substances and side-products of processing. These plastic chemicals are prone to leach into the packaged goods, in the case of food contact materials (FCMs), or into the natural environment, in the case of plastic debris. Thus, plastics represent an exposure source of chemicals for humans and wildlife alike. While it is widely known that individual plastic chemicals, such as bisphenol A and phthalates, are hazardous, little is known on the overall chemical composition and toxicity of plastics. When fragmented into smaller particles, referred to as microplastics (< 5 mm), the plastic itself can be ingested by many species. It is well established that microplastic ingestion can have negative consequences for a wide range of organisms including invertebrates, but the contribution of plastic chemicals to the toxicity of microplastics is unclear.
Given the above, the present thesis aimed at a comprehensive toxicological, ecotoxicological and chemical characterization of everyday plastics. For a comparative evaluation, 77 plastic products were selected covering 16 material types (e.g., polyethylene) made from petroleum or renewable feedstocks. These products included biodegradable products, FCMs and non-FCMs, as well as raw materials and final products, respectively. In the first two studies, the chemical mixtures contained in the 77 products were extracted with methanol and extracts were analyzed in a set of four in vitro bioassays and by non-target high-resolution gas or liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Since an exposure only occurs if chemicals actually leach under realistic conditions, in a third study migration experiments with water were conducted for 24 out of the 77 products. The aqueous migrates were assessed in the same way as the methanolic extracts. In addition, the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna was exposed chronically to microplastics made of polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR) and polylactic acid (PLA) to investigate the contribution of chemicals in microplastic toxicity, in a fourth study.
The experimental findings demonstrate that a wide variety of chemicals is present in plastics. A single plastic product can contain up to several thousand chemical features, most of which unique to that product and at the same time unknown. The results also indicate that the majority of these chemical mixtures are toxic in vitro. Accordingly, 65% of the plastic extracts induced baseline toxicity and 42% an oxidative stress response, while 25% had an antiandrogenic and 6% an estrogenic activity. This implies that chemicals causing unspecific toxicity are more prevalent in plastics than such with endocrine effects. These chemicals can also leach from plastics under realistic conditions. Between 17 and 8936 chemical features were detected in a single migrate sample and all 24 tested migrates induced in vitro toxicity. This means that humans and wildlife can actually be exposed to toxic plastic chemicals under realistic conditions. Generally, each product has its individual toxicological and chemical fingerprint. Thus, neither material type, feedstock, biodegradability nor the food contact suitability of a product can serve as a predictor for the toxicity, the chemical composition or complexity of a product. Likewise, this means that bio-based and biodegradable materials are not superior to their petroleum-based counterparts from a toxicological perspective despite being promoted as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics.
Moreover, the present thesis demonstrates that plastic chemicals can be the main driver for microplastic toxicity. Irregular microplastics made of PVC, PUR and PLA adversely affected life-history traits of D. magna in a polymer type- and endpoint-dependent manner at concentrations between 100 and 500 mg L-1 and with a higher efficiency than natural kaolin particles. While the toxicity of PVC was triggered by the chemicals used in the material, the effects of PUR and PLA were induced by the physical properties of the particle.
In addition, in the fifth study, results and observations made during this thesis were integrated inter- and transdisciplinarily with the perspectives of a social scientist and a product manufacturer. This elucidated that knowledge on plastic ingredients is often concealed, is lacking or not applicable in practice. These intransparencies hinder the safety evaluation of plastic products as well as the choice and sale of the least toxic packaging material.
Overall, the present thesis highlights that the chemical safety of plastics and their bio-based and biodegradable alternatives is currently not ensured. Thus, chemicals require more consideration in the toxicity and risk assessment of plastics and microplastics. Product-specific and complex chemical compositions, including unknown compounds, pose a challenge here. Two essential steps towards non-toxic products are to increase transparency along the product life cycle and to reduce the chemical complexity of plastics by communication and regulation. The results of the present thesis indicate that products exist which do not contain toxic chemicals. These can serve to direct the design of safer plastics. Since toxicity and chemical complexity seem to increase with processing, the integration of toxicity testing during the production steps would further support the safe and sustainable production and use of plastic products.