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The adaptive immune system protects against daily infections and malignant transformation. In this, the translocation of antigenic peptides by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the ER lumen is an essential step in the antigen presentation by MHC I molecules. The heterodimeric ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) TAP consist of the two halftransporters TAP1 and TAP2. Each monomer contains an N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD) and a conserved C-terminal nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Together, the TMDs build the translocation core and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP, energizing the peptide transport. TAP features an asymmetry in the two ATP-binding sites that are built of several conserved motifs. One motif is the D-loop with the consensus sequence SALD. The highly conserved aspartate of the D-loop of TAP1 reaches into the canonic ATP-binding site and contacts the Walker A motif and the H-loop of the opposite NBD, while the Asp of D-loop of TAP2 is part of the non-canonic ATP-binding site.
To examine this ABC transport complex in mechanistic detail, a purification and reconstitution procedure was established with the function of TAP being preserved. The heterodimeric TAP complex was purified via a His10-tag at TAP1 in a 1:1 ratio of the subunits. Nucleotide binding to the purified transporter was elucidated by tryptophan quenching assays and the affinity constants for MgADP and MgATP were determined to be 1.0 μM and 0.7 μM, respectevely. In addition, the TAP complex shows strict coupling between peptide binding and ATP hydrolysis, revealing no basal ATPase activity in the absence of peptides. Furthermore, TAP was reconstituted into proteoliposomes and the activity was tested by peptide transport and ATP hydrolysis. Interestingly, the kinetic parameters of the transporter in the reconstituted state are comparable to the data gained for TAP in microsomes.
To characterize the functional importance of the D-loop, D-loop mutants of either TAP1 or TAP2 were analyzed. Strikingly, TAP containing a mutated D-loop in TAP1 (D674A) shows an ATP-hydrolysis independent peptide translocation. Accordingly, the MHC I surface expression is similar to the wildtype situation. However, the same mutation in TAP2 (D638A) results in an ATPase dependent peptide transport similar to wildtype, whereas TAP containing mutations in both subunits leads to an inactive transporter. Although all D-loop mutants showed no altered peptide binding activity, the TAP1 mutant is inactive in peptide-stimulated ATPase activity. Strikingly, ATP or ADP binding is strictly required for the peptide translocation. Experiments carried out in proteoliposomes demonstrate that wildtype TAP can export peptides against their gradient when low peptide concentrations are offered. In contrast, the D674A mutant can facilitate peptide translocation along their concentration gradient in the two directions. At high peptide concentrations, TAP is trapped in a transport incompetent state induced by trans-inhibition. In conclusion, a TAP mutant that uncouples solute translocation from ATP hydrolysis was created. Since this passive substrate movement is strictly dependent on binding of ATP or ADP, an active transporter was turned into a “nucleotide-gated facilitator”.
In a cysteine cross-linking approach the conformational changes of TAP during peptide transport and the flexibility of the nucleotide binding domains were examined. Single cysteines were introduced in the D-loops of TAP1 and TAP2. Cross-linking by copper-phenantroline (CuPhe) was possible for all combinations. However, by adding ATP, ADP or peptide to the TAP complex no differences in the cross-linking efficiency were detected. By CuPhe cross-linking TAP was trapped in a conformation, in which the peptide binding site was not accessible. To complete a transport cycle, a flexibility of at least 17.8 Å of the NBDs is needed, since TAP cross-linked by CuPhe (2.0 Å) or bismaleimidoethane (BMOE, 8.0 Å) was transport inactive but when TAP was cross-linked by 1,11-bismaleimido-triethyleneglycol (BM[PEG]3, 17.8 Å) transport activity was preserved.
The role of the Ca2+-dependent protease calpain in the diabetes-associated platelet hyperreactivity
(2012)
Platelets from diabetic patients are characterised by hyperreactivity resulting in exaggerated adhesion, aggregation and thrombus formation which contribute to the development of cardiovascular complications known to be one of the main causes of diabetes-related mortality. One of the mechanisms suggested to be involved in the diabetes-related platelet hyperactivation is the increased [Ca2+]i which leads to the overactivation of Ca2+-dependent proteases, the calpains. Among the calpain isoforms expressed in platelets the two ubquitiously expressed μ- and m-calpain are thought to play an important role in physiological and pathophysiological processes. Particularly μ-calpain is known to be involved in many steps of physiological platelet activation such as aggregation, adhesion, secretion, and signalling. However, we could show that diabetes was associated with an enhanced activation of both μ- and m-calpain in platelets
In the first part of the study we focussed on the characterization of the molecular mechanism regulating calpain activity. Indeed, although Ca2+ is considered to be the main regulator of the proteolytic activity of the conventional calpains, other mechanisms such as the presence of phospholipids and phosphorylation have been reported to affect their activity. Since most studies reported the phosphorylation of m-calpain we were interested to see whether μ-calpain activity might be also affected by phosphorylation. We could show that the activity of μ-calpain was enhanced by the PKC activator PMA suggesting its possible regulation by phosphorylation. However, whether PKC directly targeted μ-calpain remains unclear. Given that substrate recognition is important for a protease to process its substrate and since no common consensus could be attributed to calpain substrates, our next interest was to understand the mechanism regulating the recognition of its substrates by calpain. Since phosphorylation has been reported to protect different proteins from calpain degradation we investigated whether the calpain substrate CD31 could be phosphorylated in platelets and whether this could affect its recognition by calpain. Although we could show that the tyrosine phosphorylation of CD31 was increased after activation of platelets by thrombin and that this effect was attenuated in platelets from diabetic patients, tyrosine phosphorylation of CD31 seemed to have no effect on its sensitivity to calpain-mediated proteolysis.
After the analysis of the mechanism regulating calpain activity as well as its interaction with its substrates, our next interest was the identification of new calpain substrates in platelets. Since a previous study from our group showed that PPARγ agonists could indirectly reverse the diabetes-associated calpain activation we performed DIGE analysis of platelet samples from diabetic patients before and after PPARγ agonist treatment. Using this approach we could identify four novel calpain substrates in platelets: Integrin-linked kinase (ILK), α parvin, CLP36 and septin-5. Next, we assessed the effect of calpain-mediated cleavage on the function of these newly identified proteins. We could show that μ-calpain was essential for the dissociation of ILK from the IPP complex and its activation while m-calpain-mediated cleavage led to its cleavage and inactivation. Functionally, we also showed that μ-calpain was involved in platelet adhesion while m-calpain was important for spreading.
The next protein we analysed was septin-5, a small GTPase known to regulate platelet degranulation by association with other septins and syntaxin-4. We found that the interaction between septin-5 and syntaxin-4 was inhibitory for platelet degranulation. We could demonstrate that the μ-calpain-mediated cleavage dissociated septin-5 from syntaxin 4 and led to increased secretion of platelet α-granules. Next, we investigated the in vivo role of calpain in the diabetes-associated platelet hyperreactivity. We induced diabetes in mice and could reproduce calpain activation in platelets such as that found in human. Indeed, calpain activation in murine platelets also led to the cleavage of several calpain substrates including ILK and septin-5. Moreover, platelets from diabetic mice demonstrated an increased aggregation and thrombus formation in vivo. Treatment of the animals with the calpain inhibitor A-705253 (30 mg/kg/day for 10 days) significantly restored platelet function and substrate cleavage. In conclusion, in this part of the study, we could show that the increased calpain-dependent α-granule secretion and platelet adhesion may account for the enhanced vascular proliferation and thrombus formation in diabetes and calpain inhibition represents a promising way to prevent atherothrombosis development.
In the last part of the study we analysed another enzyme known to play a crucial role in diabetes, the AMPK which is an energy-sensing kinase known to be impaired in diabetes. We could show that the two catalytic subunits AMPK α1 and α2 are expressed in platelets. The AMPKα2 seemed to be the subunit involved in platelet activation since AMPKα2-deficient mice demonstrated a defect in clot retraction and the stabilization of the thrombus while the animals showed a normal bleeding time. Mechanistically, we showed in platelets that the upstream kinase of AMPKα2 is LKB1 which was activated by thrombin stimulation via a PI-3K-dependent pathway. AMPKα2 then phosphorylated the Src-family kinase Fyn, which is responsible for the phosphorylation of its substrate β3 integrin on Tyr747. These data indicate that AMPKα2, by affecting Fyn phosphorylation and activity, plays a key role in platelet αIIbβ3 integrin signalling, leading to clot retraction and thrombus stability. Although the effect of diabetes in the AMPK-dependent pathway could not be investigated we assume that the dysregulation of this pathway may account for the thrombus destabilization and enhanced embolization encountered in diabetes.