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The enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) plays a fundamental role in the fatty acid metabolism. It regulates the first and rate limiting step in the biosynthesis of fatty acids by catalyzing the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA and exists as two different isoforms, ACC1 and ACC2. In the last few years, ACC has been reported as an attractive drug target for treating different diseases, such as insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, dyslipidemia, obesity, metabolic syndrome and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. An altered fatty acid metabolism is also associated with cancer cell proliferation. In general, the inhibition of ACC provides two possibilities to regulate the fatty acid metabolism: It blocks the de novo lipogenesis in lipogenic tissues and stimulates the mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation. Surprisingly, the role of ACC in human vascular endothelial cells has been neglected so far. This work aimed to investigate the role of the ACC/fatty acid metabolism in regulating important endothelial cell functions like proliferation, migration and tube formation.
To investigate the function of ACC, the ACC-inhibitor soraphen A as well as an siRNA-based approach were used. This study revealed that ACC1 is the predominant isoform both in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs). Inhibition of ACC via soraphen A resulted in decreased levels of malonyl-CoA and shifted the lipid composition of endothelial cell membranes. Consequently, membrane fluidity, filopodia formation and the migratory capacity were attenuated. Increasing amounts of longer acyl chains within the phospholipid subgroup phosphatidylcholine (PC) were suggested to overcompensate the shift towards shorter acyl chains within phosphatidylglycerol (PG), which resulted in a dominating effect on regulating the membrane fluidity. Most importantly, this work provided a link between changes in the phospholipid composition and altered endothelial cell migration. The antimigratory effect of soraphen A was linked to a reduced amount of PG and to an increased amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within the phospholipid cell membrane. This link was unknown in the literature so far. Interestingly, a reduced filopodia formation was observed upon ACC inhibition via soraphen A, which presumably caused the impaired migratory capacity.
This work revealed a relationship between ACC/fatty acid metabolism, membrane lipid composition and endothelial cell migration. The natural compound soraphen A emerged as a valuable chemical tool to analyze the role of ACC/fatty acid metabolism in regulating important endothelial cell functions. Furthermore, regulating endothelial cell migration via ACC inhibition promises beneficial therapeutic perspectives for the treatment of cell migration-related disorders, such as ischemia reperfusion injury, diabetic angiopathy, macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, wound healing defects and cancer.
Two main types of methods are used in gene therapy: integrating vectors and nuclease-based genome engineering. Nucleases are site-specific and are efficient for knock-outs, but inefficient at inserting long DNA sequences. Integrating vectors perform this task with high efficiency, but their insertion occurs at random genomic positions. This can result in transformation of target cells, which leads to severe adverse events in a gene therapy context. Thus, it is of great interest to develop novel genome engineering tools that combine the advantages of both technologies. The main focus of this thesis is on generating such a targetable integrating vector.
The integrating vector used in this project is the Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon, a DNA transposon characterized by high activity across a wide range of cells. The SB transposase was combined with an RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease domain. This nuclease component was meant to direct transposase integration to specific targets defined by RNAs. The SB transposase was fused to cleavage-inactivated Cas9 (dCas9) to tether it to the target sites. In addition, adapter proteins consisting of dCas9 and domains non-covalently interacting with SB transposase or the SB transposon were generated. All constituent domains of these fusion proteins were tested in enzymatic assays and almost all enzymatic activities could be verified.
Combining the fusion protein dCas9-SB100X with a gRNA binding a sequence from the AluY repetitive element resulted in a weak, but statistically significant enrichment around sites bound by the gRNA. This enrichment was ca. 2-fold and occurred within a 300 bp window downstream of target sites, or within the AluY element.
Targeting with adapter proteins and targeting of other targets (L1 elements or single-copy targets) did not result in statistically significant effects. Single-copy targets tested included the HPRT gene and three specifically selected GSH targets that were known to be receptive to SB insertions. The combination with a more sequence-specific transposase mutant also failed to increase specificity to a level allowing targeting of single-copy loci. Genome-wide analysis of insertions however demonstrated, that dCas9-SB100X has a different insertion profile than SB100X, regardless of the gRNA used.
As low efficiency of retargeting is likely a consequence of the high background activity of the SB100X transposase in the fusion constructs, a SB mutant with reduced DNA affinity, SB(C42), was generated. For this mutant, transposition activity was partly dependent on a dCas9 domain being supplied with a multi-copy target gRNA, specifically a 2-fold increase in the presence of a AluY-directed gRNA. Whether using this mutant results in improved targeting remains to be determined.
In a side project, an attempt was made to direct SB insertions to ribosomal DNA by fusing the transposase to a nucleolar protein. This fusion transposase partially localized to nucleoli and insertions catalyzed by this transposase were found to be enriched in nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) and nucleolus-associated domains (NADs).
The aim of a second side project was increasing the ratio between homology-directed repair (HDR) and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) at Cas9-mediated double-strand breaks (DSBs). To achieve this, Cas9 was fused to DNA-interacting domains and corresponding binding sequences were fused to the homology donors. While an increased HDR/NHEJ ration could be observed for the fusion proteins, it was not dependent on the presence on the binding sequences in the donor molecules.
Leukämien sind maligne Erkrankungen des hämatopoietischen Systems, die teilweise mit einer sehr schlechten Prognose einhergehen. Die Phänotypen sowie die verursachenden Mutationen in den hämatopoietischen Vorläuferzellen sind vielfältig. 5-10 % aller Akuten Leukämien korrelieren mit genetischen Veränderungen des MLLGens auf Chromosom 11q23. Besonders häufig findet man reziproke, chromosomale Translokationen. Leukämien mit diesen Mutationen zählen fast ausschließlich zu den Hochrisiko-Leukämien, wobei der Partner des MLL-Gens Einfluss auf den Verlauf der Erkrankung hat. Bisher sind 43 Translokationspartner des MLL-Gens bekannt, von denen jedoch in der Routinediagnostik nur die 6 häufigsten, MLLT2, MLLT1, MLLT3, MLLT4, ELL und MLLT10 untersucht werden. Seltene oder unbekannte Partnergene werden von den Analysen ausgenommen. Da das Partnergen aber wichtig für die Risikoeinstufung der Erkrankung ist, ist es notwendig, dieses rasch zu identifizieren, um ein optimales Therapieprotokoll anwenden zu können. Aus diesem Grund wurde eine universelle, PCR-Methode entwickelt und etabliert, die es erlaubt, jede MLL-Translokation, auch ohne vorherige Kenntnis des Partnergens, zu identifizieren. Mit Hilfe dieser Methode ist es möglich, sowohl das Partnergen, als auch den chromosomalen Bruchpunkt basengenau auf DNA-Ebene zu analysieren. Mit dieser Technik sind im Verlauf der Studie 501 Patienten untersucht worden (319 Kinder, 179 Erwachsene, 3 ohne Altersangabe). Bei diesen Analysen wurden 9 neue Partnergene entdeckt: ACACA, SELB, SMAP1, TIRAP, ARHGEF17, BCL9L, KIAA0284, MAML2 und APBB1IP. Für alle positiven Patientenproben sind außer den Partnergenen auch die basengenauen Bruchpunkte kartiert worden. Die Kenntnis des Patienten-spezifischen Bruchpunktes erlaubt eine exakte Quantifizierung der Blastenlast mittels qPCR und ermöglicht somit ein empfindliches Monitoring des Krankheitsverlaufs unter Therapie und die Detektion einer minimalen Resterkrankung (MRD).
LINE-1-Retrotransposons sind für die Entstehung von über 35 % des menschlichen Genoms verantwortlich. Während ihre Aktivität entscheidend zur Evolution von Säugetieren allgemein und des Menschen im Speziellen beigetragen hat, kann die L1-Expression und die L1-vermittelte Retrotransposition schädigende Auswirkungen für die Wirtszelle haben (Goodier und Kazazian, 2008). Die Liste der dokumentierten, durch L1-Aktivität hervorgerufenen Erkrankungen umfasst gegenwärtig ca. 65 Fälle von genetischen bzw. Tumorerkrankungen und wird immer länger. Um die Anzahl schädigender L1-Retrotranspositionsereignisse zu minimieren, hat der menschliche Organismus Strategien entwickelt, um die L1-Retrotransposition zu kontrollieren. Eine dieser Strategien ist die Inhibition der L1-Aktivität durch Mitglieder der APOBEC-Proteinfamilie, wobei deren jeweilige Mechanismen der L1-Inhibition gegenwärtig noch nicht aufgeklärt sind. Es war daher das Ziel dieser Arbeit, Einblicke in die Mechanismen der Hemmung der L1-Retrotransposition durch Mitglieder der Familie der humanen APOBEC3-Proteine zu bekommen, wobei eine Fokussierung auf den durch APOBEC3C vermittelten Mechanismus vorgenommen wurde. Aufbauend auf kürzlich publizierte Daten zur Hemmung der L1-Retrotransposition durch die APOBEC3-Proteine A3A, A3B, A3C und A3F (Bogerd et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2006; Muckenfuss et al., 2006) wurde eine Arbeitshypothese entwickelt, welche die L1-Inhibition durch APOBEC3-vermittelte Deaminierung von Cytosinen der L1-cDNA unter der Beteiligung von Faktoren des „Base Excision Repair“-Weges erklärt. Diese Arbeitshypothese steht im Einklang mit der Abwesenheit nachweisbarer G-zu-A-Hypermutationen von L1-Kopien wie sie für die APOBEC3-spezifische Deaminaseaktivität charakteristisch sind, sowie mit der Existenz 5’-verkürzter genomischer L1-Kopien. Die Ergebnisse aus in silico-Analysen der 5’-Enden von 38 L1-Neuinsertionen aus Zellkulturexperimenten, die in Anwesenheit von endogen exprimiertem A3B, A3C und A3H retrotransponiert waren, sowie von 885 genomischen, endogenen L1-Kopien waren in Übereinstimmung mit unserer Arbeitshypothese, da in beiden Fällen Guanin als erste fehlende L1-Nukleobase am L1-5’-Ende statistisch signifikant überrepräsentiert vorliegt. Während für die Inhibition von L1 durch A3A dessen Deaminaseaktivität notwendig ist, wurde gezeigt, dass A3C die L1-Retrotransposition über einen deaminaseunabhängigen Mechanismus hemmt. Die L1-Inhibition durch A3C erforderte sowohl eine funktionelle Dimerisierungsdomäne als auch eine intakte RNA-Bindedomäne. Die Identifizierung von A3C und L1-ORF1p in derselben Saccharosegradientenfraktion sowie die Kolokalisation beider Proteine im Zytoplasma von HeLa- bzw. 143B-Zellen sprechen für eine Interaktion von A3C mit L1-ORF1p bzw. L1-RNPs. Da eine direkte Interaktion von A3C und L1-ORF1p mittels Immunopräzipitation nicht nachgewiesen werden konnte, spricht dies dafür, dass die Interaktion nicht auf einen direkten Kontakt zwischen A3C und L1-ORF1p beruht. Eine direkte Interaktion zwischen A3A und L1-ORF1p konnte ebenfalls nicht nachgewiesen werden. Vielmehr spricht die Abhängigkeit der A3C-vermittelten Hemmung von der intakten RNA-Bindedomäne, experimentelle Daten, welche eine Interaktion mit L1-RNPs vorschlagen, sowie die Kolokalisation von A3C und L1-ORF1p im Zytoplasma für eine Sequestrierung der L1-RNPs, die Behinderung des nukleären Imports der L1-RNPs oder aber eine Blockierung der TPRT-Initiation als mögliche Mechanismen der A3C-vermittelten Hemmung der L1-Retrotransposition.
As one of the most widespread infectious diseases in the world, it is currently estimated that approximately 296 million people globally are chronically infected with Hepatitis B virus (HBV), the consequences of HBV infection cause more than 620,000 deaths each year. Although safe and effective HBV vaccines have reduced the incidence of new HBV infections in most countries, there are still around 1.5 million new infections each year. HBV remains a major health problem because there is no large-scale effective vaccination strategy in many countries with a high burden of disease, many people with chronic HBV infection are not receiving effective and timely treatment, and a complete cure for chronic infection is still far from being achieved.
Since its discovery, HBV has been identified as an enveloped DNA virus with a diameter of 42 nm. For efficient egress from host cells, HBV is thought to acquire the viral envelope by budding into multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and escape from infected cells via the exosome release pathway. It is clear that HBV hijacks the host vesicle system to complete self-assembly and propagation by interacting with factors that mediate exosome formation. Consequently, the overlap with exosome biogenesis, using MVBs as the release platform, raises the possibility for the release of exosomal HBV particles. Currently, virus containing exosomal vesicles have been described for several viruses. In light of this, this study explored whether intact HBV-virions wrapped in exosomes are released by HBV-producing cells.
First, this study established a robust method for efficient separation of exosomes from HBV virions by a combination of differential ultracentrifugation and iodixanol density gradient centrifugation. Fractionation of the density gradient revealed that two populations of infectious viral particles can be separated from the culture fluids of HBV-producing cells. The population present in the low-density peak co-migrates with the exosome markers. Whereas the population that appeared in the high-density fractions was the classical HBV virions, which are rcDNA-containing nucleocapsids encapsulated by the HBV envelope.
Subsequently, the characterization of this low-density population was performed, namely the highly purified exosome fraction was systematically investigated. Relying on the detergent sensitivity of the exosome membrane and the outer envelope of the HBV virus, disruption of the exosome structure by treatment with limited detergent revealed the presence of HBsAg in the exosomes. At the same time, mild and limited NP-40 treatment of highly purified exosomes and a further combination of density gradient centrifugation resulted in the stepwise release of intact HBV virions and naked capsids from the exosomes generated by HBV-producing cells. This implies the presence of intact HBV particles encapsulated by the host membrane.
The presence of exosome-encapsulated HBV particles was consequently also verified by suppressing the morphogenesis of MVBs or exosomes. Impairment of MVB- or exosome-generation with small molecule inhibitors has significantly inhibited the release of host membrane-encapsulated HBV particles as well. Likewise, silencing of exosome-related proteins caused a diminution of exosome output, which compromised the budding efficiency of wrapped HBV.
Moreover, electron microscopy images of ultra-thin sections combined with immunogold staining visualized the hidden virus in the exosomal structure. Additionally, the presence of LHBs on the surface of exosomes derived from HBV-expressing cells was also observed.
As expected, these exosomal membrane-wrapped HBV particles can spread productive infection in differentiated HepaRG cells. In HBV-susceptible cells, as LHBs on the membrane surface, this type of exosomal HBV appeared to be uptaken in an NTCP receptor-dependent manner.
Taken together these data indicate that a fraction of intact HBV virions can be released as exosomes. This reveals a so far not described release pathway for HBV. Exosomes hijacked by HBV act as a transporter impacting the dissemination of the virus.
Antiproliferative und proapoptotische Mechanismen des Morphins - Konsequenzen für die Krebstherapie
(2008)
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollte geprüft werden, ob Morphin in der Prostatakarzinomtherapie eingesetzt werden kann. Prostatakrebs ist bei Menschen eine der vier häufigsten aber kaum therapierbare Krebserkrankung. Nach dem Wiederauftreten des Karzinoms weist diese eine extrem hohe Mortalitätsrate auf. Morphin hemmt in MCF7-Zellen, die wie Prostatakarzinome zu den Adenokarzinomen gehören, das Tumorwachstum bei klinisch relevanten Plasmakonzentrationen und weist einen scheinbar μ-Opioid-Rezeptor unabhängigen antiproliferativen Effekt auf. In Kombination mit Naloxon kann dieser Effekt noch gesteigert werden. Somit könnte in Patienten das Tumorwachstum gehemmt werden, ohne die klassischen Nebenwirkungen hervorzurufen. Für den antiproliferativen Effekt ist die Stabilisierung von p53 notwendig. Prostatakarzinome schienen für eine Therapie mit Morphin prädestiniert, da p53 nur sehr selten in diesen Karzinomen mutiert ist. Für die Experimente wurde die LNCAP Prostatakarzinomzelllinie eingesetzt. Da Morphin weder das Tumorwachstum, noch die Zellproliferation in LNCAP-Zellen hemmte, scheint Morphin für die Behandlung von Prostatakarzinomen nicht geeignet zu sein. Durch Untersuchung der Angiogenese in LNCAP Tumoren konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine geringere Vaskularisierung keine verminderte Tumormasse zur Folge hat. Für eine erfolgreiche Krebstherapie scheint es im Gegenteil wichtig zu sein, eine normale Vaskularisierung in Tumoren wiederherzustellen. Die unterschiedlichen Morphinsensitivitäten der beiden Adenokarzinomzelllinien führte zu der Hypothese, dass der μ-Opioid-Rezeptor - zumindest partiell - doch an der Vermittlung des antiproliferativen Effekts des Morphins beteiligt sein könnte. Morphin induziert verschiedene Effekte in MCF7-Zellen, während LNCAP-Zellen kaum auf Morphin reagierten. Es sollte daher untersucht werden, warum MCF7-Zellen sensitiver auf Morphin ansprechen. Durch Überlebenstests mit MCF7-Zellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Behandlung der Zellen mit Morphin in Kombination mit exogenem Glutathion das Überleben der MCF7-Zellen im Vergleich zu morphinbehandelten Zellen signifikant steigern konnte. Dies war ein Hinweis, dass Morphin erstens die Bildung von ROS induziert und dies zweitens in einem Ausmaß geschieht, dass die Überlebensrate der MCF7-Zellen konzentrationsabhängig gehemmt wurde. In weiteren Experimenten zeigte sich, dass die Inkubation der MCF7-Zellen mit Morphin weder die endogene Glutathionkonzentration noch die Expressionsraten der detoxifizierenden Enzyme SOD1 und P5 moduliert. Morphin induziert bei Konzentrationen von 100 μM und 1000 μM in MCF7-Zellen eine signifikant gesteigerte Superoxidanionenbildung. Wie bei den MCF7 Überlebenstests konnte exogen gegebenes Glutathion die durch 100 μM Morphin induzierte Superoxidanionenbildung unterdrücken. Die verstärkte Bildung der Superoxidanionen ist auf Morphin beschränkt, da sie nicht durch die Gabe von Fentanyl, Levomethadon oder Oxycodon induziert werden konnte. Die Bildung der Superoxidanionen könnte Morphin durch die Modulation einer plasmamembranständigen NADH Oxidase hervorrufen. Weiterhin wurden die Folgen einer chronischen Morphingabe im Rückenmark untersucht. Es wird vermutet, dass Morphin im Rahmen einer chronischen Behandlung Apoptose in GABAergen Neuronen auslöst. Für die neuronenspezifische Apoptose nach chronischer Morphingabe konnten durch FACS-Analysen ebenfalls Hinweise gefunden werden. Mittels vergleichender Proteomanalyse konnte festgestellt werden, dass VDAC1 im Rückenmärkgewebe von Tieren, die eine beginnende Morphintoleranz aufweisen, verstärkt exprimiert wurde. Neue Untersuchungen zeigen, dass VDAC1 in der Plasmamembran als Redoxenzym fungieren kann. Dort ist es mit einer NADH Oxidase in den PMOR Komplex eingebunden, der eine wichtige Rolle in der Regeneration von NAD+ aus NADH spielt und so Überleben und Zellwachstum ermöglicht. Eine Störung des PMOR Komplexes hat die Bildung von Radikalen zur Folge. In dieser Arbeit wird die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass Morphin durch Modulation der plasmamembranstädnigen NADH Oxidase in MCF7-Zellen die Bildung von Superoxidanionen induziert. Als Konsequenz könnte VDAC1 verstärkt phosphoryliert werden, um die NAD+/NADH Homöostase aufrecht zu erhalten. Im Laufe der chronischen Morphingabe wird postuliert, dass sich derart viele Superoxidanionen akkumulieren, dass schwerwiegende Schäden an den Makromolekülen vorliegen und die Zelle daher in die Apoptose geht.
Protein quality control systems (PQC), i.e. UPS and aggresome-autophagy pathway, have been suggested to be a promising target in cancer therapy. Simultaneous pharmacological inhibition of both pathways have shown increase efficacy in various tumors, such as ovarian and colon carcinoma. Here, we investigate the effect of concomitant inhibition of 26S proteasome by FDA-approved inhibitor Bortezomib, and HDAC6, as key mediator of the aggresome-autophagy system, by the highly specific inhibitor ST80 in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cell lines. We demonstrated that simultaneous inhibition of 26S proteasome and selective aggresome-autophagy pathway significantly increases apoptosis in all tested RMS cell lines. Interestingly, we observed that a subpopulation of RMS cells was able to survive the co-treatment and, upon drug removal, to recover similarly to untreated cells. In this study, we identified co-chaperone BAG3 as the key mediator of this recovery: BAG3 is transcriptionally up-regulated specifically in the ST80/Bortezomib surviving cells and mediates clearance of cytotoxic protein aggregates by selective autophagy. Impairment of the autophagic pathway during the recovery phase, both by conditional knock-down of ATG7 or by inhibition of lysosomal degradation by BafylomicinA1, triggers accumulation of insoluble protein aggregates, loss of cell recovery and cell death similarly to stable short harpin RNA (shRNA) BAG3 knock-down. Our results are the first demonstration that BAG3 mediated selective autophagy is engaged to cope with proteotoxicity induced by simultaneous inhibition of constitutive PQC systems in cancer cell lines during cell recovery. Moreover, our data give new insights in the regulation of constitutive and on demand PQC mechanisms pointing to BAG3 as a promising target in RMS therapy.
Metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is one of the most challenging tumor entities in pediatric oncology caused by treatment resistances and immune escape. Novel chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) immunotherapies as specific, effective and safe treatment provide antitumor cytotoxicity by soluble factors and ligands/receptor signals. Besides its intrinsic potential as innate immune cell the ErbB2-sprecific CAR-engineered natural killer (NK)-92 cell line NK-92/5.28.z also provides CAR-mediated cytotoxicity, resulting in a high lytic capacity against 2D and 3D RMS cell structures in vitro. Also in a xenograft model using immune deficient NOD/Scid/IL2Rγ-/- (NSG) mice inhibited NK-92/5.28.z the tumor growth as long as the cells were administered and therefore prolonged the survival of the animals. The NK-92/5.28.z were distributed by the blood circulation and subsequently infiltrated the tumor tissue. Due to the malignant origin of the NK-92 cell line the cells must be irradiated prior to the use in patients. While the irradiation hampered the proliferation of NK-92/5.28.z cells, the cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro is retained for at least 24 hours. In the xenograft model irradiated NK-92/5.28.z cells inhibited the tumor growth but to a lower extent than untreated cells, as irradiated cells have only a limited life span in vivo no durable persistence and remission was achieved. Therefore, combinatorial approaches were focused and while blocking of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis did not resulted in a significantly enhanced tumor cell lysis, the combinatorial treatment with proteasome inhibitor bortezomib exhibited a significant enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells at least in vitro. Bortezomib itself induces caspase mediated apoptosis and also the upregulates the expression of TRAIL receptor DR5. The corresponding ligand TRAIL is expressed on the surface of the NK-92/5.28.z and pursuing experiments with purified TRAIL and bortezomib revealed a synergism. NK-92/5.28.z as an off-the-shelf product is therefore feasible for the therapy of metastatic RMS, but it might be necessary to support the cytotoxicity by additive agents like proteasome inhibitor bortezomib to archive durable remission.
Another cell population suitable for RMS CAR-immunotherapy are cytokine induced killer (CIK) cells, a heterogenous cell population generated from autologous PBMCs consisting of T, NK and T-NK cells. Lentivirally transduced ErbB2-specific CAR-CIK cells were previously shown to inhibit the tumor engraftment in a RMS xenograft model. However, lentiviral transduced adoptive immunotherapies bear risks for the transfer in patients, therefore the Sleeping Beauty Transposon System (SBTS) as a non-viral method, which integrates the CAR coding DNA by a cut-and-paste mechanism from a minicircle (MC) into the CIK cells genome is more feasible for the generation of CAR-CIK cells. The Sleeping beauty transposase mRNA and the MC were transferred in the cell by nucleofection, different factors influence the transfection efficiency and viability of the CIK cells in this harsh procedure. In preliminary experiments with MC Venus, a MC encoding eGFP, the highest transfection efficiency with the best proliferative capacity was achieved with cells on day 3 of CIK culture and without the addition of autologous monocytes as feeder cells. For the CAR construct the protocol was further improved by adjusting crucial factors, for this construct the best results were achieved on day 0, without irradiated PBMCs as feeder cells and cultivation in X-Vivo10 medium supplemented with human fresh frozen plasma. The X-Vivo10 medium enhanced the percentage of NK- and T-NK cells significantly compared to CAR-CIK cells cultured in RPMI. Since the gene transfer by SBTS resulted in CAR-CIK cells stably expressing a CAR in all subpopulations, resulting in a significantly enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro, these cells were compared to lentiviral transduced CAR-CIK cells in vitro and in vivo. While the SBTS CAR-CIK cells were superior to viral CAR-CIK cells in 2D short-term assays, the viral cells showed higher lytic capacity in 3D spheroid long-term assays. In a RMS xenograft model lentiviral CAR-CIK cells significantly prolonged the survival of mice and persisted, whereas SBTS CAR-CIKs did not favor the overall survival compared to untreated controls and also did not persist. Phenotypic analysis revealed a highly cytotoxic CD8+ and late effector memory dominant phenotype for SBTS CAR-CIK cells supporting short-term cytotoxicity but also more prone for exhaustion, while viral CAR-CIK cells showed a more balanced phenotype for memory and cytotoxicity. Therefore, the SBTS is feasible for the ErbB2-CAR gene transfer in CAR-CIK resulting in a stable CAR-expression with high short-term cytotoxicity, but these cells are also more prone to exhaustion and the protocol might be adapted further to prevent this limitation for in vivo application.
This work underlines the hard-to-treat characteristics of metastatic RMS, but also shows some approaches for further evaluation like the combination of NK-92/5.28.z cells with bortezomib and the feasibility of the generation of CAR-CIK cells via SBTS.
Food allergies are defined as an adverse health effect arising from a specific immune response that occurs reproducibly on exposure to a given food. The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the past decade. Epidemiologic studies involving controlled food challenges for the diagnosis of food allergies indicated that between 1 % to 10.8 % of the population have immunemediated non-toxic food hypersensitivity.
Despite the increasing prevalence, no curative treatment has been established for food allergies so far except the complete avoidance of the elicited food. To establish safe and effective immunotherapy for food allergies, it is of crucially importance to elucidate pathological mechanism of such diseases.
Food allergies are classified into IgE-mediated and non-IgE mediated (T-cell mediated) allergies, depending on the immunologic pathways and the role of the IgE on the pathogenesis of the disease. Allergic enteritis (AE) is a gastrointestinal form of food allergy. It is classified as non-IgE-mediated food allergy. However, patients with AE often develop IgE and high levels of IgE have been associated with development of persistent AE. The gastrointestinal symptoms of AE are nonspecific, resulting in the fact that a broad differential diagnoses including diagnostic approaches for allergic diseases are necessary to rule out other gastrointestinal pathologies. Biopsies of patients with allergic enteritis have shown infiltration of inflammatory cells (e.g. mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and T cells) in the lamina propria, disruption of intestinal villi, edema, and presence of goblet cells in the intestine...
P2X receptors are ligand (ATP)-gated ion channels that open an intrinsic cation permeable pathway in response to extracellular ATP released from both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. P2X receptors are abundantly distributed and mediate a wide variety of physiological functions, ranging from fast synaptic transmission in the central, peripheral, and enteric nervous system, to proinflammatory cytokine release from immune cells. The primary aim of this work was to elucidate the pathway that leads to the finally assembled trimeric P2X receptors, including the assessment of a possible role of ER chaperones and folding factors in this process. Additionally, the study was conducted to investigate the various ER quality control processes involved in the selection of “properly folded and assembled” P2X receptors that are suitable for the surface expression.