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Eukaryotische Zellen sind durch, aus Lipiddoppelschichten bestehenden, Membranen in Kompartimente mit unterschiedlichen Funktionen eingeteilt. Um einen Transport von Molekülen über die Membranen hinweg zu gewährleisten, werden Kanälen und Transporter benötigt. Eine Familie von Transportern sind die ATP-binding cassette (ABC) Transporter, die in allen Lebewesen, von Bakterien bis zum Menschen, vorkommen. Ein Mitglied dieser Familie ist der transporter associated with antigen processing-like (TAPL oder ABCB9). TAPL ist ein lysosomaler Polypeptidtransporter der per ATP-Hydrolyse Peptide von 6 – 59 Aminosäuren Länge vom Zytosol in das Lumen der Lysosomen transportiert. Hierbei kann TAPL, das ein Homodimer ist, in zwei funktionale Domänen geteilt werden. Der Teil des Komplexes, der für den Transport zuständig ist, wird als coreTAPL bezeichnet. Dieser beinhaltet die zytosolischen nucleotide binding domains (NBDs), die ATP binden und hydrolysieren können, und die Transmembrandomänen (TMDs), die Peptide binden und sie durch konformationelle Änderungen auf der anderen Membranseite freilassen. Die zweite Domäne ist eine N-terminale TMD, die als TMD0 bezeichnet wird. Dieser, aus vier Transmembranhelices (TMHs) bestehende Teil des Proteins, ist für die Lokalisation von TAPL in der lysosomalen Membran verantwortlich, sowie für die Interaktion mit den dort lokalisierten Membranproteinen LAMP-1 und LAMP-2. CoreTAPL ohne die TMD0s erreicht nicht die Lysosomen, sondern liegt in der Plasmamembran (PM) der Zelle vor. Die TMD0 hingegen benötigt coreTAPL nicht um korrekt in der lysosomalen Membran lokalisiert zu sein.
Die korrekte Lokalisation in der Zelle ist ein kritischer Punkt für ein Protein, um seine Funktion ausüben zu können. Die Transportprozesse vom Ort der Synthese des Proteins, dem Endoplasmatischem Reticulum (ER), zum Organell wo es seine Funktion ausüben soll, umfassen dutzende Proteine und Proteinkomplexe und ein komplexes Zusammenspiel zwischen Proteinen und den einzigartigen Lipidzusammensetzungen der Membranen verschiedener Organellen. Auf das Einfachste heruntergebrochen benötigt ein Transmembranprotein eine kurze Aminosäuresequenz auf der zytosolischen Seite, die Signalsequenz. Diese Sequenz wird von sogenannten Adapterproteinen erkannt, die wiederum andere Bestandteile der zellulären Maschinerie rekrutieren, die letztlich Vesikelbildung, Transport und Fusion mit der Zielorganelle vermitteln. Allerdings weisen nicht alle lysosomalen Transmembranproteine eine solche Signalsequenz auf, sondern besitzen unkonventionelle Zieldeterminanten, wie posttranslationale Modifikationen, oder sie interagieren mit anderen Proteinen, die wiederum die Interaktion mit den Adapterproteinen vermitteln.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a predominant class of cell-surface receptors in eukaryotic life. They are responsible for the perception of a broad range of ligands and involved in a multitude of physiological functions. GPCRs are therefore of crucial interest for biological and pharmaceutical research. Molecular analysis and functional characterisation of GPCRs is frequently hampered by challenges in efficient large-scale production, non-destructive purification and long-term stability. Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) provides new production platforms for GPCRs by extracting the protein synthesis machinery of the cell in an open system that allows target-oriented modulations of the synthesis process and direct access to the nascent polypeptide chain. CFPS is fast, reliable and highly adaptable. Unfortunately, highly productive cell-free synthesis of GPCRs is often opposed by low product quality. This thesis was aimed to adapt and improve some of the new possibilities for the cell-free production of GPCRs in high yield and quality for structural and pharmaceutical analysis. An E. coli based CFPS system was applied to synthesise various turkey and human Beta-adrenergic receptor (Beta1AR) derivatives as well as human Endothelin receptors type A and B (ETA and ETB) constructs. Both receptor families are important drug targets and pharmacologically addressed in the treatment of several cardiovascular diseases. CF-synthesis was mainly performed in presence of nanodiscs (ND), which are reconstituted high density lipoprotein particles forming discoidal bilayer patches with a diameter varyring from 6 to approx. 15 nm. The supplementation of ND in the CF-synthesis reaction caused the co-translational solubilisation of the freshly synthesised GPCRs. The fraction of the solubilised GPCR that was correctly folded was analysed by the competence to bind its ligand alprenolol or Endothelin-1, respectively. Both the solubilisation efficiency and the ability to fold in a ligand binding competent state was strongly affected by the lipid composition of the supplied ND. Best results were generally achieved with lipids having phosphoglycerol headgroups and unsaturated fatty acid chains with 18 carbon atoms. Furthermore, thermostabilisation by introduction of point mutations had a large positive impact on the folding efficiency of both Beta1AR and ETB receptor. Formation of a conserved disulphide bridge in the extracellular region was additionally found to be crucial for the function of the ETB receptor. Disulphide bridge formation could be enhanced by applying a glutathione-based redox system in the CFPS. Further improvements in the quality of ETB receptor could be made by the enrichment of heat-shock chaperones in the CF-reaction. Depending on the receptor type and DNA-template, roughly 10 – 30 nmol (350 – 1500 µg) of protein could be synthesised in 1 ml of CF-reaction mixture. After the applied optimisation steps, the fractions of correctly folded receptor could be improved by several orders of magnitude and were finally in between 35% for the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR, 9% for the thermostabilised ETB receptor, 6.5% for the non-stabilised ETB receptor, 1 - 5% for non-stabilised turkey Beta1AR and for human Beta1AR isoforms and 0.1% for ETA receptor. Therefore, between 2 and 120 µg of GPCR could be synthesised in a ligand binding competent form, depending on the receptor and its modifications. Correctly folded turkey Beta1AR and ETB receptors were thermostable at 30°C and could be stored at 4°C for several weeks after purification. Yields of the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR were sufficient to purify the receptor in a two-step process by ligand-binding chromatography to obtain pure and correctly folded receptor in the lipid bilayer of a ND. Furthermore, a lipid dependent ligand screen could be demonstrated with the turkey Beta1AR and significant alterations in binding affinities to currently in-use pharmaceuticals were found. The established protocols are therefore suitable and highly competetive for a variety of applications such as screening of GPCR ligands, analysis of lipid effects on GPCR function or for the systematical biochemical characterisation of GPCRs. Most promising for future approaches appears to address the suspected bottlenecks of intial insertion of the GPCR-polypeptide chain in the ND bilayer and the thermal stability of the receptors. Nevertheless, the estabilised protocols for the analysed targets in this thesis are already highly competitive to previously published production protocols either in cell-based or cell-free systems with regard to yield of functional protein, speediness and costs. Moreover, the direct accessibility and other general characteristics of cell-free synthesis open a large variety of possible applications and this work can therefore contribute to the molecular characterisation of this important receptor type and to the development of new pharmaceuticals.
Specialized transporter proteins facilitate controlled uptake and extrusion of molecules across biological membranes that would otherwise be impermeable to them. The superfamily of solute carriers (SLC) comprises the second largest group of membrane proteins in humans, acting on a variety of small polar and non-polar molecules and ions. Because of their central role in metabolism, malfunctioning of these proteins often is pathogenic. The interest in SLC transporters as drug targets – as well as for drug delivery – has therefore increased in the past years. For many SLC subfamilies, however, structural and functional information remains scarce to date.
The here presented data provides important insights into different aspects of the transport mechanism of the SLC23 and SLC26 protein families. Importantly, we show that SLC23 nucleobase transporters, in contrast to what was been previously reported, work as uniporters rather than as proton-coupled symporters. In order to do so, we developed the first and only in vitro transport assay for the SLC23 family, which enables investigation of protein function in a defined environment. Moreover, we provide a hypothesis on the role of the extremely conserved negative charged substrate binding site residue found not only in the SLC23, but also SLC4 and SLC26 families. Based on a detailed analysis of binding and transport we conclude that this conserved negative charged has a relevance for protein stability rather than for substrate binding, which explains its conservation for all three protein families that otherwise differ in their substrate specificities and modes of transport. Lastly, we investigated the relevance of oligomerization for the SLC23 and SLC26 families, highlighting the importance of the STAS domain for forming active dimers in the SLC26 anion transporter family.
The human endothelin receptors, ETA and ETB, are two members of the G-protein coupled receptors family (GPCRs) and they are key players in cardiovascular regulation. The characterization of their functionality in vitro has been limited by the possibility to obtain high quality samples using conventional expression systems. The Cell-Free expression system is an alternative technique for the production of membrane protein as well as GPCRs and can overcome some of the limitations that are commonly encountered using an in vivo approach. Cell-Free expression protocols for the two receptors ETA and ETB have been optimized by implementing post- and co-translational association to lipid bilayers. The efficiency of the reconstitution or association to liposomes and nanodiscs has systematically been studied and the ligand binding properties of the two receptors have been analyzed using a set of different complementary techniques. In several different conditions a high affinity binding of the peptide ligand ET-1 to both endothelin receptors could be obtained and the highest activity values were detected in sample prepared using a co-translational approach in presence of nanodiscs. Furthermore, the characteristic differential binding pattern of selected agonists and antagonists to the two receptors was confirmed. In samples obtained from several Cell-Free expression conditions, two intrinsic properties of the functionally folded ETB receptor, such as the proteolytic processing based on conformational recognition as well as the formation of SDS-resistant complexes with the peptide ligand ET-1, were detected. ETA and ETB are able to induce in vivo the activation of hetrotrimeric G proteins upon stimulation with an agonist, leading to the dissociation of the heterotrimeric complex and the exchange of GDP to GTP in the Galpha subunit. The Cell-Free expression system was chosen for the production of two G alpha subunit, Galpha s and Galpha q. Soluble expression of the two proteins was achieved and the production of active Galpha s was confirmed using fluorescent as well as radioactive assays. In conclusion, the obtained results document a new process for the production of ligand binding competent endothelin receptors, as well as Galpha proteins, using a Cell-Free expression system. The combination of this expression system and the nanodiscs technology appears to be a promising tool for the further characterization of membrane proteins as well as GPCRs.
The transporter associated with antigen processing-like (TAPL) acts as a lysosomal ATP-dependent polypeptide transporter with broad length selectivity. To characterize in detail its substrate specificity, a procedure for solubilization, purification and functional reconstitution of human TAPL was developed. TAPL was expressed in Sf9 insect cells with the baculovirus expression system and solubilized from crude membranes. By intensive screening of detergents, the mild non-ionic detergents digitonin and dodecylmaltoside were found to be ideal for solubilization with respect to efficiency, long term stability, and functionality of TAPL. TAPL was isolated in a two-step procedure with a yield of 500 micro g/L cell culture and, subsequently, reconstituted into proteoliposomes. The KM(pep) for the peptide RRYCfKSTEL (f refers to fluorescence label) and KM(ATP) were determined to be 10.5 ± 2.3 micro M and 97.6 ± 27.5 micro M, respectively, which are in the same range as the Michaelis-Menten constants determined in the membranes. The peptide transport activity of the reconstituted TAPL strongly depends on the lipid composition. Interestingly, the E. coli lipids are prefered over other tested natural lipids extracts. Moreover, phosphatidylcholine, the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic cells influenced TAPL activity in a dose dependent manner. In addition, some negatively charged lipids like DOPA and DOPS increased peptide transport activity with preference for DOPS. However, DOPE or egg PG which are also negatively charged had no effect. It seems not only the charge but also the specific head group of phospholipids that has impact on the function of TAPL. With the help of combinatorial peptide libraries containing D-amino acid residues at defined positions as well as bulky fluorescein labeled peptides, the key positions of the peptides were localized to the N- and C-terminal residues with respect to peptide transport. The C-terminal position has the strongest selectivity since modification at this position shows strongest impact on peptide transport. Additionally, positions 2 and 3 of the peptide also have weak influence on peptide selectivity. Subsequently, the residue preferences at the key positions were systematically investigated by combinatorial peptide libraries with defined residues at certain positions. At both ends, TAPL favors positively charged, aromatic, or hydrophobic residues and disfavors negatively charged residues as well as asparagine and methionine. The residue preferences at the key positions are valid for peptide substrates with different length, indicating a general rule for TAPL selectivity. Besides specific interactions of both terminal residues, electrostatic interactions are important, since peptides with positive net charge are more efficiently transported than negatively charged ones. By size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and blue native PAGE, TAPL purified in the presence of digitonin or dodecylmaltoside had an apparent molecular weight of 200 kDa which is close to the theoretical molecular mass of the TAPL homodimer (172 kDa). The purified and reconstituted TAPL showed specific ATP hydrolysis activity which can be inhibited by orthovanadate. TAPL in proteoliposomes showed 6-fold higher ATP hydrolysis than digitonin solubilized protein, indicating the phospholipids impact on TAPL function. However, no peptide substrate stimulated ATPase activity was observed. For site-specific labeling of TAPL, eight cysteines in each half transporter were replaced by alanine or valine. The TAPL cys-less mutant showed the same peptide transport activity as TAPL wt. Based on the functional TAPL cys-less mutant, seven single cysteine mutants were introduced into strategic positions. All single cysteine mutants in the TMD did not influence peptide transport, whereas the mutant L701C, which is close to the conserved H-loop motif, displayed impaired transport. TAPL orthologs Haf-4 and Haf-9 from Caenorhabditis elegans possess around 40% sequence identities with TAPL and 50% with each other. Both proteins are putative half transporters and reported to be involved in the intestinal granule formation (Bauer, 2006; Kawai et al., 2009). To further understand the physiological functions of these two proteins, they were expressed in Sf9 insect cells. Haf-4 and Haf-9 showed weak but specific ATP- and peptide-dependent peptide transport activity for the given peptide RRYCfKSTEL. Therefore, it was proposed that the physiological roles for Haf-4 and Haf-9 might be related to their peptide transport activity. Besides forming functional homodimeric complex as estimated by the peptide transport activities, both half transporter could also form heteromers which was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation. However, the heteromers showed decreased transport activity.