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Inhibitoren der Apoptose (IAP, inhibitor of apoptosis) Proteine spielen eine wichtige Rolle in Bezug auf Zelltodregulation und es ist anzunehmen, dass eine Dysregulation dieser Proteine zu einer Tumorentwicklung und Tumorprogression beiträgt. Erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAP Proteinen verhindern die Aktivierbarkeit des Zelltodprogrammes von Tumorzellen und eine Reihe von Studien konnte bereits erhöhte IAP Level in Tumorzelllinien sowie in primären Tumorproben nachweisen. Des Weiteren korrelieren erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAPs in Tumoren mit Behandlungsresistenzen und schlechten Prognosen für die Patienten.
Das diffuse großzellige B-Zell Lymphom (DLBCL, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) zählt zu den häufigsten Subtypen der Non-Hodgkin Lymphome (NHL) mit 40 % aller neu diagnostizierten NHL Fälle. DLBCL ist eine sehr heterogene Erkrankung die in drei verschiedene Gruppen klassifiziert wurde: aktivierter B-Zell Typ (ABC, activated B-cell), Keimzentrum B-Zell Typ (GCB, germinal center B-Cell) und Mediastinaler großzelliger B-Zell Typ (PMBL, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma). Erhöhte Expressionslevel von zellulärem IAP1 (cIAP, cellular IAP) und cIAP2 wurden ebenfalls in primären Tumorproben von DLBCL Patienten nachgewiesen. Smac mimetics wurden entwickelt, um IAPs zu antagonisieren und stellen damit eine Behandlungsstrategie für DLBCL Patienten dar, denn ca. 40 % aller DLBCL Patienten entwickeln ein Rezidiv oder erreichen gar keine Remission unter Standardtherapie. Jedoch ist der Effekt von Smac mimetics in einer Einzelbehandlung limitiert, weswegen Kombinationstherapien mit Smac mimetics eine vielversprechende Strategie für ihren klinischen Einsatz darstellen. Aus diesem Grund haben wir in dieser Arbeit den Effekt von Smac mimetic in Kombination mit Proteasom-Inhibitoren analysiert und einen speziellen Fokus auf den molekularen Mechanismus des ausgelösten Zelltodsignalweges gelegt.
Die Kombination verschiedener Konzentrationen des Smac mimetics BV6 mit dem Proteasom-Inhibitor carfilzomib (CFZ) löst in allen drei getesteten DLBCL Subtypen (ABC, GCB und PMBL) Zelltod aus. Die Kalkulation des Kombinationsindexes (CI, combination index) sowie des Bliss Scores, zwei quantitative Parameter zur Bestimmung eines Synergismus, zeigen, dass fast alle getesteten Kombinationen einen Synergismus aufweisen. Dies verdeutlicht, dass eine Co-Behandlung von BV6 und CFZ eine wirksame Kombination ist um Zelltod in DLBCL Zelllinien auszulösen. Außerdem zeigt eine Kombination von BV6 mit anderen Proteasom-Inhibitoren wie ixazomib (IXA) oder oprozomib (OPR), ebenfalls eine synergistische Reduktion der Zellviabilität. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der detektierte Effekt nicht auf eine Substanz limitiert ist, sondern, dass ein genereller Effekt von Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitoren vorliegt, um Zellviabilität in DLBCL zu reduzieren. BV6 und CFZ induzieren einen apoptotischen Zelltod, da sie die Spaltung und Aktivierung von Initiator- und Effektorcaspasen (Caspasen-3, -7, -8 und -9) initiieren und sich der induzierte Zelltod mit Hilfe des Caspasen-Inhibitors zVAD.fmk verhindern lässt. Die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ führt zu einer Akkumulation von NIK, ein Protein welches zur Aktivierung des non-kanonischen NF-kB Signalweges benötigt wird. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigen jedoch, dass NIK nicht an der Zelltodinduktion beteiligt ist, da eine siRNA-basierte Herunterregulierung des NIK Proteins keinen Einfluss auf die Zelltodinduktion nimmt. Ebenfalls ist der Zelltod unabhängig von dem TNFa Signalweg, da weder eine Behandlung mit dem TNFa Inhibitor Enbrel den Zelltod verringern kann noch eine zusätzliche Gabe von TNFa den Zelltod erhöht. Weitere mechanistische Studien zeigen eine kritische Rolle der mitochondrialen Apoptose für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod. Unter Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ wurde eine Aktivierung von BAX und BAK nachgewiesen, welche beide mit verantwortlich für die Porenbildung in der mitochondrialen Membran sind. Eine Herunterregulation dieser beiden Proteine mittels siRNA reduziert signifikant den durch BV6/CFZ-induzierten Zelltod auf ein Minimum. Gleichzeitig löst eine Co-Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ einen Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials (LOMMP, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential) aus. In Übereinstimmung mit den vorherigen Experimenten, zeigen wir eine Akkumulation von mitochondrialen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS; reactive oxygen species), sowie einen generellen Anstieg des allgemeinen ROS Levels. Eine Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ zeigt eine deutliche Akkumulation des pro-apoptotischen Proteins NOXA. Um dessen funktionelle Relevanz zu überprüfen, wurde die Proteinmenge von NOXA mittels siRNA stark reduziert. Eine Behandlung mit der Kombination aus BV6 und CFZ zeigt daraufhin eine signifikant reduzierte Zelltodinduktion, was die funktionelle Relevanz von NOXA für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod unterstreicht. Immunopräzipitationsstudien zeigen, dass in RIVA und U2932 Zellen NOXA konstitutiv an seinen anti-apoptotischen Bindungspartner MCL-1 gebunden ist, was die Zellen bereits darauf vorbereitet Apoptose zu durchlaufen. Dieses sogenannte „primen“ für Apoptose wird durch die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ weiter verstärkt, da es die Bindung zwischen NOXA und MCL-1 weiter erhöht. Dadurch wird die Balance zwischen pro- und anti-apoptotischen Proteinen zu Gunsten der pro-apoptotischen Proteine verschoben und die Induktion von Apoptose begünstigt.
Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass DLBCL Zelllinien sensitiv auf eine Behandlung mit Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitor reagieren und damit eine mögliche neue Behandlungsstrategie für diese heterogene Tumorerkrankung darstellt.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in various signalling mechanisms. Redox homeostasis is important in cancer cells, since they are dependent on upregulated antioxidant defence pathways to cope with elevated ROS levels. Therefore, targeting the antioxidant defence system and/ or increasing ROS to a lethal level may be a feasible strategy to counteract cancer cell progression.
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is the most frequent malignant childhood cancer, displaying on one side resistance to cell death induction and on the other side elevated ROS levels. Therefore, inducing ferroptosis, a ROS- and iron-dependent cell death pathway might be useful to trigger cell death in ALL as a novel treatment strategy. In the first study of this thesis we observed that RSL3, a glutathione (GSH) peroxidase 4 (GPX4) inhibitor, triggered ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation which contributed to ferroptotic cell death. These observations were based on suppression of RSL3 stimulated cell death using different ferroptosis inhibitors like Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), Liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1), as well as iron chelator Deferoxamine (DFO) and the vitamin E derivate α-Tocopherol (α-Toc). RSL3-triggered ROS and lipid peroxide production were also inhibited through Fer-1 and α-Toc. Furthermore, lipoxygenases (LOX) were activated upon RSL3 stimulation and contributed to ferroptotic cell death in ALL as well. Selective inhibition of LOX with the 12/15-LOX inhibitor Baicalein and the pan-LOX inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) abolished RSL3-induced ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death. In addition, RSL3 induced lipid peroxide-dependent ferroptotic cell death in FAS-associated Death Domain (FADD)-deficient, death receptor-induced apoptosis resistant cells, demonstrating that ferroptosis might circumvent apoptosis resistance.
The second part of the study revealed that RSL3 and Erastin (Era), a GSH-depleting agent, inhibiting the cystine/glutamate antiporter system xc- and ferroptosis inducer, cooperated with the Smac mimetic BV6 to trigger cell death in ALL cells. RSL3/BV6 and Era/BV6 combination-induced cell death was dependent on ROS accumulation, but independent of caspases and key modulators of necroptosis. RSL3/BV6-treated ALL cells exhibited classical features of ferroptotic cell death with iron-dependency, ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation which was diminished through either pharmacological inhibition (Fer-1, DFO, α-Toc) or genetic inhibition by overexpressing GPX4. Interestingly, Era/BV6-induced cell death in ALL cells was independent of iron but dependent on ROS accumulation, since α-Toc rescued from Era/BV6-triggered ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death. Moreover, inhibition of lipid peroxide formation through the addition of Fer-1 or by overexpressing GPX4 failed to rescue from Era/BV6-triggered cell death, even if Era/BV6-stimulated lipid peroxidation was diminished. Likewise, Fer-1 protected from RSL3/BV6-, but not from Era/BV6-generated ROS production, leading to the assumption that other ROS besides lipid-based ROS contributed to cell death in Era/BV6-treated cells. In summary, while RSL3/BV6 induced ferroptosis in ALL, Era/BV6 stimulated a ROS dependent cell death, which was neither dependent on iron nor caspases or receptor-interacting protein (RIP) kinase 1 nor 3. Additionally, using Erastin alone did not trigger ferroptotic cell death in ALL. Finally, with these two studies we tried to unravel the molecular pathway of ferroptosis by using RSL3 and Erastin as well described ferroptosis stimulators. Here, we demonstrate the possibility of a novel treatment strategy to reactivate programmed cell death by impeding redox homeostasis in ALL.
Since ALL failed to induce ferroptosis upon Erastin treatment, we investigated in the third part of this thesis a new model system to induce ferroptosis upon Erastin and RSL3 exposure. Previous studies revealed that rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cells might be susceptible to oxidative stress-induced compounds. To this end, we used Erastin as a prototypic ferroptosis stimulus and GSH-depleting agent and demonstrated that GSH depletion, ROS and lipid ROS accumulation contributed to cell death. Additionally, Fer-1, Lip-1, DFO, lipophilic vitamin E derivate α-Toc and GSH, a cofactor of GPX4, protected from Erastin stimulated ROS accumulation, lipid peroxidation and cell death. Also, the use of a broad spectrum protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor Bisindolylmaleimide I (Bim1), a PKCα and ß selective inhibitor Gö6976 and siRNA-mediated knockdown of PKCα suppressed Erastin-mediated cell death in RMS. Moreover broad spectrum nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) inhibitor Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) and a more selective NOX1/4 isoform inhibitor GKT137831 abrogated Erastin-generated ROS formation, lipid peroxidation and cell death. With this, we demonstrate that RMS are vulnerable to ferroptotic cell death and investigated the molecular mechanism of ferroptosis by unravelling that PKC and NOX could have a pivotal role in ROS-mediated ferroptosis signalling in RMS. In this regard, ferroptosis inducers may act as a possible novel treatment strategy for RMS, especially those with poor clinical outcome.
Almost two decades ago, microRNAs were discovered as novel posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression. Since then, research efforts have uncovered their involvement in the control of various cellular processes including migration, proliferation and cell survival. Even more complex events, such as the formation of new blood vessels or organ development, have been shown to be tightly regulated and orchestrated by microRNAs. Due to their crucial regulatory role in tissue homeostasis in vertebrates, it does not come as a big surprise that dysregulated microRNA ex-pression is associated with pathology of diverse diseases. In this regard, the miR-17-92 cluster is a prime example since it has become famous for its amplified expression in tumours and its on-cogenic potential. Our lab demonstrated the expression of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster, namely miR-17, -18a, -19a, -20a, -19b and -92a, in endothelial cells and provided evidence for the anti-angiogenic activity of miR-92a in ECs as well as its important regulatory role in tissue re-covery after ischemia. In this work we addressed the function of the remaining members of the miR-17-92 cluster, i.e. miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a and miR-20a, in endothelial cells and angiogenesis. Surprisingly, the individual members all displayed anti-angiogenic properties in endothelial cells in vitro, although overexpression of the whole cluster in transformed colonocytes was shown to promote tumour angiogenesis in a mouse model. In this context, we provide evidence that the individual miRs differentially affect the paracrine angiogenic activity of endothelial and tumour cells. Moreover, Antagomir-mediated inhibition of miR-17/20 in a mouse tumour model did not affect tumour angi-ogenesis, although miR-17/20 inhibition profoundly increased vascularization of Matrigel plugs. Thus, our research efforts suggest a differential involvement of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster in physiological and tumour angiogenesis. Additionally, we identified Janus kinase (JAK) 1 as a novel miR-17 target in endothelial cells and demonstrated the involvement of JAK1 in angio-genesis and in the phosphorylation of STAT3 in response to different cytokines in vitro. Overall, inhibition of specific members of the miR-17-92 cluster might represent an attractive therapeutic strategy to enhance angiogenesis in ischemic diseases. In the second part of the present work we investigated the therapeutic value of Antagomir-mediated microRNA inhibition in animal models of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Collectively, inhibition of miR-17 by the respective Antagomir revealed a significant improvement of pulmonary hemodynamics and cardiac function in both the chronic hypoxia mouse model and the mono-crotaline-induced lung injury rat model. Histomorphometric analysis of the lungs of the pulmonary hypertensive mice and rats uncovered a significant reduction of disease associated musculariza-tion of pulmonary arteries in Antagomir-17 treated animals compared to the control animals indicating interference with smooth muscle cell proliferation or survival. Probing of lung tissue of the pulmonary hypertensive rats for selected miR-17 targets uncovered a profound increase in the expression of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21 in the Antagomir-17 treated rats suggest-ing that inhibition of miR-17 impairs proliferation by impeding cell cycle progression. Analysis of miR-17 function in human smooth muscle cells in vitro corroborated the results from the animal experiments by demonstrating pro-proliferative activity of miR-17 and decreased levels of p21 in these cells. Collectively, our results indicate that Antagomir-17 improves pulmonary hemodyna-mics and cardiac function by interfering with vascular remodelling within the lung. Hence, inhibi-tion of miR-17 might be of therapeutic value to ameliorate the disease pattern in pulmonary arte-rial hypertension. In summary, the present work provides insights into the regulatory functions of members of the miR-17-92 cluster, especially miR-17, in blood vessels and suggests that specific inhibition of members of the miR-17-92 cluster might be a novel option to treat vascular diseases.
Since Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins are frequently dysregulated in different cancer entities and contribute to apoptosis resistance, pharmacological IAP antagonists are considered to be promising agents for the future development of cancer treatment strategies. IAP antagonists are small-molecule drugs that have been designed to mimic the interaction site of IAP proteins with their endogenous inhibitor Second mitochondrial activator of caspases (SMAC). Thus, they are frequently referred to as SMAC mimetics. Treatment with SMAC mimetics engages an apoptotic program in cancers by affecting different components of the apoptotic machinery. Besides disinhibition of caspases, SMAC mimetics trigger non-canonical nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling, which induces upregulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α and other NF-κB target genes. In particular, TNFα production has been closely linked to the induction of SMAC mimetic-mediated cell death. The TNFα-dependent para/autocrine loop facilitates the formation of a cytosolic complex consisting of caspase-8, Fas-associated death domain (FADD) and Receptor-interacting protein (RIP) 1, which serves as caspase-8 activation platform and ultimately triggers induction of apoptosis. In the present study, we use the small-molecule bivalent SMAC mimetic BV6 to analyze SMAC-stimulated NF-κB signaling in cancer cell lines of different entities. Interestingly, we identify two novel NF-κB-regulated factors that are both required for SMAC mimetic-induced apoptosis in a context-dependent manner. First, we show that NF-κB-dependent upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) can serve as an alternative mechanism of BV6-mediated cell death. We demonstrate that BV6 treatment induces NF-κB-dependent but largely TNFα -independent apoptosis in A172 glioblastoma cells. By using an unbiased whole genome expression analysis approach, we identify DR5 as a critical NF-κB target gene, which substitutes TNFα and is indispensable for BV6-initated cell death in A172 cells. Second, we demonstrate that Interferon regulatory factor (IRF) 1 is required for BV6-induced TNFα production and apoptosis. Our study provides evidence that IRF1 closely cooperates with the NF-κB network in BV6-mediated cell death and additionally alters expression of selective SMAC mimetic-induced target genes. Furthermore, we show that BV6 treatment triggers secretion of a set of proinflammatory cytokines and increases attraction of monocytes to BV6-treated tumor cells in an IRF1-dependent manner. In summary, our work supports the notion that NF-κB-regulated factors are critically required for SMAC mimetic-initiated apoptosis. We show that IRF1 is indispensable for TNFα production and cell death in BV6-sensitive cell lines and that also DR5 can serve as a proapoptotic NF-κB-controlled factor in BV6-induced apoptosis besides TNFα. Furthermore, this study contributes to an improved understanding on non-apoptotic functions of SMAC mimetics, as IRF1 additionally influences expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines and attraction of immune cells. Thus, our work provides novel insights into the regulation of SMAC mimetic-induced signaling events, which is crucial for the translation of SMAC mimetics for use in clinical application.
Die Gentherapie bietet eine interessante alternative Behandlungsoption bei der Therapie der HIV-Infektion und könnte langfristig die Standardmedikation mit antiretroviralen Substanzen ergänzen oder ersetzen. Antivirale Genprodukte, die frühe Schritte im HIV-Replikationszyklus hemmen, bevor sich das Virus in das Genom der Zielzelle integriert hat, sind dabei besonders vielversprechend. Hierzu zählen insbesondere die von der C-terminalen heptad repeat Region des HIV-Hüllglykoproteins gp41 abgeleiteten C-Peptide, die hochwirksame Inhibitoren des Viruseintritts sind. Während des HIV-Eintrittsprozesses interagieren sie mit den viralen gp41 N-Helices und verhindern somit die Ausbildung des zur Fusion von viraler und zellulärer Membran erforderlichen Sechs-Helix-Bündels. Die Sekretion antiretroviraler C-Peptide durch genmodifizierte T-Lymphozyten in vivo birgt großes therapeutisches Potential: Nach Freisetzung in den extrazellulären Raum können die Peptide nicht nur genmodifizierte sondern auch unbehandelte Nachbarzellen vor HIV-Infektion schützen (Bystander-Effekt). Somit könnte selbst mit den heute zur Verfügung stehenden Methoden, mit denen lediglich ein Teil aller potentiellen HIV-Zielzellen modifiziert werden kann, die Virusreplikation effektiv unterdrückt werden. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher C-Peptid-basierte in vivo sezernierte antivirale Eintrittsinhibitoren (iSAVE) für die HIV-Gentherapie entwickelt. Kurze Peptide, wie die antiviralen C-Peptide, werden von eukaryotischen Zellen aufgrund von Größenbeschränkungen beim Eintritt in den Sekretionsweg jedoch nur schlecht sezerniert. Um die effiziente Sekretion von iSAVE-Peptiden durch genmodifizierte humane Zellen zu erreichen, wurde das C-Peptid daher verlängert. Hierbei wurde das therapeutische Peptid einerseits um nicht antiviral aktive Gerüstelemente ergänzt. Andererseits wurden Concatemer-Konstrukte generiert, in denen zwei C-Peptide jeweils über einen flexiblen oder proteolytisch spaltbaren Linker verbunden sind. Die unterschiedlichen iSAVE-Peptid-Varianten wurden in vitro in transfizierten und transduzierten Zelllinien und in primären humanen T-Lymphozyten charakterisiert. Hierbei wurden Sekretionseffizienz und Prozessierung sowie antivirale Aktivität und Bystander-Inhibition der sezernierten Peptide untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Effizienz der C-Peptidsekretion stark mit der Peptidlänge korreliert, so dass durch Sequenzverlängerungen die Sekretion deutlich gesteigert werden konnte. Darüber hinaus waren N-Glykane für die effiziente Sekretion der C-Peptide unerlässlich. Die antiretrovirale Aktivität hingegen reduzierte sich mit zunehmender Peptidlänge dramatisch und wurde auch durch N-Glykane leicht beeinträchtigt, so dass weder die durch Gerüstelemente verlängerten C-Peptide, noch die ungespaltenen C-Peptid-Concatemere antiretrovirale Wirkung zeigten. Durch die Generierung proteolytisch spaltbarer C-Peptid-Concatemere konnten die strukturellen Erfordernisse für effiziente Sekretion mit hoher inhibitorischer Aktivität vereinbart werden. Die Prozessierung der Concatemere durch die Proprotein-Convertase Furin war allerdings nicht einfach zu erreichen. Nur das Einfügen eines flexiblen Linkers mit optimierter Furinerkennungssequenz zwischen den beiden C-Peptiden erlaubte die effiziente Spaltung in monomere Peptide mit hoher antiretroviraler Aktivität. Therapeutisch wirksame Peptidkonzentrationen dieser optimierten iSAVE-Peptide wurden sowohl von transfizierten und transduzierten Zelllinien als auch von primären humanen T-Zellen sezerniert. Nach Freisetzung in den extrazellulären Raum konnten die Peptide nicht nur genmodifizierte sondern auch unbehandelte Nachbarzellen in vitro vor HIV-1 Eintritt und Infektion schützen. Die generierten iSAVE-Peptide bilden damit eine hervorragende Grundlage für die weitere präklinische und klinische Entwicklung eines neuen Gentherapieansatzes zur Behandlung der HIV-Infektion.
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), a neoplastic disorder of blood cells of the lymphoid lineage, is the most frequent childhood cancer. In spite of increasing survival rates, the outcome for adults, infants or relapsed patients is still less favorable, highlighting the need for novel treatment options. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important signaling molecules that are involved in a variety of cellular pathways. As high ROS levels lead to oxidative stress and irreversible oxidation of cellular macromolecules, the production and elimination of ROS is tightly controlled. Therefore, cells express several antioxidant molecules and enzymes, including glutathione, catalase and the thioredoxin (Trx) system, to balance ROS levels. As cancer cells were found to have increased ROS levels that could contribute to tumor progression and metastasis, they rely strongly on these antioxidant systems to prevent oxidative damage, making cancer cells especially vulnerable to ROS-inducing treatments. ROS and oxidative stress have been shown to induce programmed cell death via different pathways, however the exact mechanisms that couples oxidative signaling and cell death is not completely understood.
As a disturbance of the cellular redox homeostasis was reported during leukemia development and progression, we wanted to determine the potential of Trx inhibitors for ALL therapy. Additionally, we aimed to further understand the role of ROS and subsequent protein oxidation in the induction and execution of programmed cell death.
First, we demonstrated that the Trx1 inhibitor PX-12 induced cell death in three ALL cell lines. Further analysis of the events leading to PX-12-induced cell death in FADD-deficient (FD) Jurkat cells revealed an increase in ROS levels and oxidation-mediated dimer formation of peroxiredoxin 3 (PRDX3). Interestingly cell death was inhibited by the thiol-containing antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC), but not by non-thiol-containing ROS scavengers. PX-12 treatment further induced cleavage of caspase-9 and -3 and activation of the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 protein BAK, leading us to the conclusion that mitochondria-dependent apoptosis was induced. Interestingly, we could demonstrate an important role for the BH3-only protein NOXA in the mediation of PX-12-induced apoptosis as knock-down of NOXA prevented cell death induction and BAK activation. Our findings give novel insights into the mechanism of PX-12-induced cell death in ALL cell lines and underscores the potential of PX-12 for the treatment of ALL.
To further understand the processes leading to cell death upon inhibition of the Trx system, we analyzed global protein oxidation in Jurkat FD cells upon treatment with the Trx reductase inhibitor Auranofin. In line with previous results, Auranofin induced intrinsic apoptosis that was dependent on BAK and accompanied by increased ROS levels. Using a BIAM Switch Assay followed by mass spectrometry, we demonstrated that Auranofin treatment induced oxidation of over 200 proteins. We identified several proteins whose oxidation upon Auranofin treatment was expected, like Trx1, Trx2 and several peroxiredoxins. Additionally, we verified oxidation of APAF1-interacting protein (APIP) and protein arginine N-methyltransferase (PRMT1) that are both implicated in the regulation of apoptosis. With this analysis we were able to demonstrate that Auranofin treatment leads to changes in global protein oxidation. Whether oxidation of the determined proteins changes their functionality and contributes to apoptosis induction remains to be elucidated.
As we identified BAK as an important player in PX-12- and Auranofin-induced cell death in the previous parts of this study, we wanted to further understand its involvement in ROS-mediated cell death. First analyses in wild-type (WT) and BAK-/- murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) revealed that BAK was essential for Auranofin-induced cell death and that this cell death was caspase-independent in MEFs. Interestingly, BAK oxidation was induced upon treatment with Auranofin, but not upon stimulation with the apoptosis-inducing compound Etoposide. Expression of mutated BAK, with either one or both oxidation-sensitive cysteines mutated to oxidation-insensitive serines, revealed that mutating already one cysteine protected cells from Auranofin , but not Etoposide-induced cell death. Of note, mutation of the BAK BH3 domain rescued MEFs from both, Auranofin- and Etoposide-mediated cell death. The presence of cysteine residues also altered BAK interactions as observed by a mass spectrometric analysis of Auranofin-treated MEFs expressing either WT or cysteine-less BAK. We identified interactions of WT BAK with proteins involved in mitochondrial fission and vesicle transport upon Auranofin treatment. Of note, interaction with proteins involved in apoptosis, like BAX or BCL-XL, was not changed between WT and cysteine-less BAK. Our results demonstrate a critical role for BAK oxidation in Auranofin-induced cell death. Furthermore, we identified novel oxidation-dependent BAK interaction partners.
To conclude, this study highlights the potential of ROS-inducing treatments for ALL therapy and provides novel insights into the redox regulation of programmed cell death.
Caspase-2 is the evolutionary most conserved member of the caspase family and was shown to be involved in genotoxic stress induced apoptosis, control of aneuploidy, and ageing related metabolic changes. However, its role in apoptosis seems redundant due to the observation, that knockout does not inhibit apoptotic signalling exclusively. Instead, knockout of caspase-2 leads to tumor susceptibility in vivo, which led to the assumption, that caspase-2 has non-apoptotic functions and can act as a tumor suppressor. The underlying mechanism of the tumor suppressor activity of caspase-2 has not been clarified so far. Furthermore, caspase-2, has a prominent, and as pro-enzyme exclusive localisation in the nucleus and other subcellular compartments, implicating a distinct and location specific role.
In this study, a novel caspase-2 specific substrate, termed p54nrb, was identified. P54nrb is harbouring a caspase-2 specific cleavage site at the aspartate residue D422, and cleavage of p54nrb leads apparently to disruption of its putative DNA binding domain at the C-terminus.
P54nrb is a nuclear multifunctional RNA and DNA binding protein, known for roles in transcriptional regulation, DNA unwinding and repair, RNA splicing, and retention of defective RNA. Overexpression of p54nrb has been observed in several human cancers, such as cervix carcinoma, melanoma, and colon carcinoma.
Data from this study revealed, that depletion of p54nrb in tumor cell lines results in a loss of resistance to drug induced cell death and to reduced capability of anchorage independent growth, which is functionally equivalent to a reduced tumorigenic potential. Meanwhile, p54nrb depletion alone is not cytotoxic.
The investigation of p54nrb dependent gene regulations by high resolution quantitative proteomics uncovered an altering expression of multiple tumorigenic genes. For two of these candidates, the tumorigenic protease cathepsin-Z and the anti-apoptotic gelsolin, p54nrb dependent expression was detected universally in all three investigated tumor cell lines, cervix carcinoma, melanoma, and colon carcinoma. Additionally, a direct interaction of p54nrb with the cathepsin Z and gelsolin encoding DNA, but not with their corresponding mRNA, could be demonstrated.
Conjointly, this study unveils a novel mechanistic feature of caspase-2 as a tumor suppressor. The caspase-2—p54nrb axis can orchestrate the levels of several tumorigenic proteins and thereby determine the cell death susceptibility and long-term tumor survival. These findings might be of great value for future therapeutic interventions and for overcoming drug resistance of tumors.
Die Biosynthese der Fettsäuren (FS) ist in Eukaryoten und Bakterien ein hochkonserviert zentraler Stoffwechselweg, der in zwei strukturell verschiedenen Systemen ausgeführt wird. Die meisten Bakterien, Parasiten, Pflanzen und Mitochondrien nutzen ein Fettsäuresesynthase Typ-II (FAS-II) System. Bei FAS II Systemen sind alle katalytischen Domänen separate lösliche Proteine. In Eukaryoten wie auch den Bakterien Corynebakteria, Mycobakteria, Nocardia (Klasse der CMN Bakterien) liegen die katalytischen Domänen fusioniert auf einer Polypeptidkette vor, die zu einem Multienzymkomplex der Fettsäuresynthase Typ I (FAS-I) assemblieren. Die Architektur der FAS-I zeigt große Unterschiede; die X förmige Säuger-FAS-I (Maier et al., 2006), sowie die fassartigen Enzyme der Pilz FAS-I (Jenni et al., 2007; Leibundgut et al., 2007; Lomakin et al., 2007; Johansson et al., 2008) und der bakteriellen FAS-I (Boehringer et al., 2013; Ciccarelli et al., 2013). Zwischen Pilz- und bakterieller FAS-I gibt es trotz des ähnlichen Aufbaus bedeutende Unterschiede. Mycobakterium tuberculosis, der Auslöser von Tuberkulose (TB), an der jährlich über eine Million Menschen weltweit sterben (WHO, 2014), synthetisiert durch eine Symbiose von FAS-I, FAS-II und der Polyketidsynthase-13 Mykolsäuren. Durch die Mykolsäuren ist M. tuberculosis resistent gegen äußere Einflüsse. FAS-I ist in die Synthese der Vorstufen der Mykolsäuren involviert. Sie stellt im Kampf gegen TB ein potentielles Inhibierungstarget dar.
Strukturell war die bakterielle FAS-I beim Beginn der vorliegenden Arbeit, nur durch negative-stain-Elektronenmikroskopie (EM) Aufnahmen aus dem Jahr 1982 charakterisiert (Morishima et al., 1982). In dieser Arbeit konnte die bakteriellen FAS I aus M. tuberculosis (MtFAS), sowie Corynebacterium ammoniagenes (CaFAS) und Corynebacterium efficiens (CeFAS) strukturell untersucht werden. Dies geschah mit den Methoden negative-stain-EM, Einzelmolekül-Cryo-EM (Cryo-EM), Cryo EM Tomographie (CET) und Röntgenkristallographie.
Anhand von CeFAS-Kristallen konnte erstmals durch Röntgenkristallographie die Struktur einer bakteriellen FAS-I bestimmt werden. Zudem wurde die hohe konformationelle Flexibilität der bakteriellen FAS-I mit mehreren Methoden gezeigt. Für die CaFAS konnte mit Cryo-EM initiale Prozesse der Proteinkristallbildung abgebildet werden.
Recently, two of the most common types of bone cancers in children and young adults have been proven to exhibit vulnerability to poly(ADP)-ribose polymerase, (PARP) inhibitors (e.g. olaparib, talazoparib). Ewing’s sarcoma (ES) are reported to harbor a fusion gene EWS-FLI1 (85%), inducing tumorigenesis. Additional, as the fusion gene acts as aberrant transcription factor, it similarly induces elevated PARP expression levels sensitizing ES to PARP inhibition. Second, by an exome sequencing approach in a set of primary osteosarcomas (OS) we identified mutation signatures being reminiscent of BRCA deficiency. Therefore, the sensitivity of a panel of OS cell lines to either talazoparib single treatment or in combination with several chemotherapeutic drugs was investigated.
To screen ES tumor cell lines against PARP inhibitors we applied four different PARP inhibitors (talazoparib, olaparib, niraparib and veliparib) that are frequently being used for clinical studies. We combined those PARP inhibitors with a set of chemotherapeutics (temozolomide (TMZ), SN-38, etoposide, ifosfamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and actinomycin D) that are part of the first-line therapy of ES patients. Here, we demonstrate how PARP inhibitors synergize with TMZ or SN-38 to induce apoptosis, whereas the combination of PARP inhibitors with the other drugs are not favorable. By investigation of key checkpoints in the molecular mechanisms of cell death, the pivotal role of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis mediating the synergy between olaparib and TMZ was revealed.
Employing talazoparib monotherapy in combination with or without several chemotherapeutic drugs (TMZ, SN-38, cisplatin, doxorubicin, methotrexate and etoposide/carboplatin), the correlation between homologous recombination (HR) repair deficiency (BRCAness) and the response to talazoparib as prototypical PARP inhibitor was validated in different OS cell lines. By calculation of combination indices (CI) and fraction affected (Fa) values, we identified TMZ as the most potent chemotherapeutic drug in combination with talazoparib inducing the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in OS.
In our studies of two independent tumor entities with contrary genetic background we identified the combination of PARP inhibitor and TMZ as being most effective. Our studies point out that after TMZ induced DNA methylation and concomitant PARP trapping, DNA damage-imposed checkpoint kinase activation consequently induces G2-cell cycle arrest. Subsequent, PARP inhibitor/TMZ causes MCL-1 degradation, followed by activation of BAK and BAX, succeeding in loss of mitochondrial outer membrane potential (LMMP) and activation of downstream effector-caspases in mitochondrial apoptosis. Our findings emphasize the importance of PARP inhibition in order to chemosensitize ES, which express high PARP levels, or OS that bear features of BRCAness.
Das Steroid-Hormon 17ß-Estradiol ist maßgeblich an der Entstehung und Entwicklung von Brustkrebs beteiligt. Die intrazelluläre Verfügbarkeit des aktiven Estrogens, 17ß-Estradiol, wird durch die 17ßHydroxysteroiddehydrogenase (17ßHSDl) reguliert, die die NADPH-abhängige Reduktion von Estron zu Estradiol katalysiert. Damit stellt die 17ßHSD1 einen interessanten Ansatzpunkt für die Entwicklung neuer Inhibitoren im Hinblick auf potente Wirkstoffe gegen Brustkrebs dar. Die 17ß-Hydroxysteroiddehydrogenase 2 bevorzugt hingegen die oxidative Aktivität und wandelt die biologisch aktiven Hydroxysteroide wie Estradiol in ihre inaktiven Ketoformen um. Ein möglicher Inhibitor der 17ß-HSD1 sollte demnach die Funktion der 17ß-HSD2 nicht beeinträchtigen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Strategien und Methoden entwickelt, die 17ßHSD1 durch heterologe Expression erstmals in E. coli darzustellen. Durch NMR-Spektroskopie in Kombination mit Docking konnten detaillierte Aussagen über die Bindungsepitope der untersuchten Liganden gemacht werden. Diese Informationen sind für eine gerichtete Optimierung von Leitstrukturen von großer Bedeutung.