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Batten disease refers to neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs), which are inherited lysosomal storage diseases with diverse ages of onset and cause progressive neurodegeneration. The most common NCL is Juvenile NCL (JNCL), which begins in early childhood and is characterized by lysosomal accumulation of subunit c of the mitochondrial ATP synthase (subunit c). JNCL is caused by mutations in the gene CLN3. This gene encodes the CLN3 protein, a transmembrane protein of unknown structure. Localization of CLN3 is ambiguous, and its exact cellular function is not known. Thereby, it is unclear what mechanisms lead to neurodegeneration in JNCL. Models of JNCL present disturbed membrane bound organelles and cytoskeleton as well as impaired autophagy and lysosomal function. The JNCL gene defect that most patients harbor is deletion of the exons 7 and 8 of CLN3. In the Cln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 mouse model of JNCL, this deletion has been introduced to the mouse Cln3 gene.
The actin cytoskeleton consists of filaments formed through polymerization of actin and provides a framework which defines cellular morphology and also facilitates cell motility, cytokinesis, and cell surface remodeling. Rho GTPases are signaling proteins which regulate the assembly and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton and play an important role in neuronal morphology. Rho GTPases need to be membrane-anchored in order to become active and initiate a signaling cascade. Their membrane anchorage is achieved through their geranylgeranyl tails, which they acquire through prenylation. Protein prenylation refers to the attachment of a geranylgeranyl or farnesyl group to the C-terminus of a protein. The enzyme geranylgeranyl transferase (GGTase) catalyzes geranylgeranylation, whereas geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) is the donor of the geranylgeranyl group. Cells produce GGPP as well as cholesterol and other lipids through the mevalonate pathway (MVA pathway).
The aim of this study was to analyze how the JNCL gene defect affects cellular morphology, especially the actin cytoskeleton and Rho GTPases, and the MVA pathway which is connected with Rho GTPase activation. These important cellular components play crucial roles in neurons and are implicated in other neurodegenerative diseases, but have received little attention in JNCL. The immortalized CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 cerebellar precursor cell line from Cln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 mice was used for the experiments and provides a genetically accurate, neuronal cell model of JNCL. CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 cells present subunit c accumulation only when aged at confluency, but sub-confluent cells display other phenotypes. The experiments of this study were performed both with confluency-aged and sub-confluent cells. Filamentous actin was visualized, and protein levels as well as membrane localization of several small Rho GTPases was analyzed biochemically. Also the protein levels of GGTase and the key enzymes of the mevalonate pathway were determined.
Staining pattern of filamentous actin was disturbed in confluency-aged CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 cells. Additionally it was found out that these cells did not grow to wild-type size and exhibited an elongated peroxisomal morphology. Rho GTPases had reduced total levels and showed a tendency of decreased membrane localization. Levels of GGTase and the MVA pathway enzymes were altered. Results of sub-confluent CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 cells were similar with the exception of HMG-CoA reductase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme of the MVA pathway: while its level in confluency-aged CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 cells was increased, at sub-confluency it showed a reduced level. Also, in contrast with the confluency-aged cells, Rho GTPases presented a tendency of increased membrane localization.
The results of this study reveal that the accurate JNCL gene defect alters cellular morphology and the activity of the MVA pathway in neuronal cells. Small cell size and disrupted architecture of the actin cytoskeleton are confirmed as neuronal JNCL phenotypes, and the peroxisome is introduced as a novel cellular component affected in JNCL. Through defects in endocytosis, autophagy, lysosomal and mitochondrial function, and cytoskeleton, the JNCL gene defect may prevent cells from growing to wild-type size. The JNCL gene defect may attenuate the MVA pathway via mitochondrial dysfunction and/or upregulation of degradative processes. Attenuation of the MVA pathway may contribute to impaired membrane rafts, which are an established phenotype of JNCL cells. As indicated by reduced GGTase level and supported by downregulation of lipid production through the MVA pathway, the JNCL gene defect might also decrease prenylation of proteins.
Leukemia inhibitory factor enhances neurogenin's pro-neural effect during mouse cortical development
(2007)
Die Entwicklung von unterschiedlichen Zelltypen waehrend der embryonalen ZNS-Entwicklung ist abhaengig von zellintrinsischen und positionsabhaengigen, aeusseren Einfluessen. Dabei bilden sich die verschiedenen Zellen in nacheinander ablaufenden bzw. sich teilweise ueberlappenden Zeitraeumen. Zuerst entstehen Radiaglia und Neuronen, nachfolgend Astrozyten und zuletzt Oligodendrozyten. Werden neurale Stammzellen/Vorlaeuferzellen (NPCs – neural precursor cells) zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten entnommen und ohne den Einfluss von Wachstumsfaktoren kultiviert, so entwickeln sich diese Zellarten in der gleichen Reihenfolge. Die Neurogenese, die bei Mausembryos am Tag E11-12, nach dem Etablieren der Radialglia, beginnt, findet an E14 ihren Hoehepunkt. Zu diesem Zeitpunt werden die Gene Neurogenin1 (Ngn1) und Ngn2 in den neuralen Vorlaeuferzellen der Ventrikularzone des dorsalen Cortexes in hohem Masse exprimiert. Wie aus Untersuchungen von unserm Labor gezeigt wurde, beguenstigt es die Entstehung von Neuronen und blockiert gleichzeitig Pro-Astrozyten-Einfluesse. Zum einen inhibiert Ngn den JAK/STAT Signalweg, dessen Aktivierung fuer die Gliogenese noetig ist, indem es die Phosphoylierung von STAT1/3 auf bisher noch unbekannte Weise blockiert. Ausserdem bindet der Transkriptions-Coaktivator cAMP-response element binding protein (CBP), welches auch von den STATs fuer die Transkription benoetigt wird, bevorzugt an Ngn sobald dieses von den Vorlaeuferzellen exprimiert wird. Mit dem Tag E16 nimmt die Neurogenese in vivo wieder stark ab und es setzt die Gliogenese ein, bei der zunaechst ueberwiegend Astrozyten gebildet werden. Faktoren wie leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) sowie ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) beguenstigen dabei die Astrozytogenese indem sie den JAK/STAT Signalweg aktivieren. Die Bindung von LIF/CNTF fuehrt zur Phosphorylierung von STAT-Transkriptionsfaktoren, die ihrerseits dann an den CBP/p300 Komplex binden und schliesslich die Expression von Astrozyten-spezifischen Genen aktivieren. Die STAT-Faktoren koennen aber erst nach Abfall des Ngn-Spiegels an den Transkriptions-Coaktivator binden, da sich die Bindungsstellen dieser beiden ueberlappen. Um die Hypothese zu ueberpruefen, dass LIF auch die Neurogenese, oder spezifischer, die Wirkung von Ngn positiv beeinflusst, wurden cortikale NPCs von murinen Embryos entnommen und der Wirkung von LIF via Luciferase Assay untersucht. Dabei wurden die Vorlaeuferzellen mit Ngn und einem Reporter transfiziert, welcher den NeuroD-Promoter beinhaltete. NeuroD-Expression findet in der Regel gegen Mitte/Ende der Neurogenese statt und ist wichtig fuer die Reifung von Neuronen. Der Promoter von NeuroD beinhaltet ein E-box Element, an welches Ngn bindet und die Transkription einleitet. Wie unsere ersten Versuche zeigten, verstaerkt LIF die Transkriptionsaktivitaet von Ngn und somit die Transkription von NeuroD. Wenn aber im selben Versuch ein NeuroD-Reporter transfiziert wurde, dessen E-box mutiert war, wurde keine Transkriptionsaktivitaet gemessen, was wiederum bestaetigte, dass der pro-neurale LIF-Effekt ueber Ngn lief und E-box-Bindung noetig war. Um den Einfluss des pro-neuralen Effekts von LIF auf Proteinebene zu testen, wurden NPCs mit Ngn-Adenovirus infiziert und mit LIF stimuliert. Dabei wurden die Zellen auf die Expression von Neuron-spezifischem class III β-tubulin (TuJ1) untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass LIF bei Zellen, die Ngn exprimierten, die Rate der Neuronen von etwa 5% auf etwa 50% anstiegen liess, waehrend LIF bezueglich der Gliogenese (gezeigt durch die Expression von GFAP) in Ngn-exprimierenden Vorlaeuferzellen kaum Wirkung zeigte. Als naechstes sollte untersucht werden ueber welchen Signalweg LIF Ngn aktivierte. LIF bindet zunaechst an LIF receptor β (LIFRβ), der dann an glycoprotein 130 (gp130) bindet. Diese Bindung fuehrt dann zur Aktivierung mehrerer Signalkaskaden: dem JAK/STAT, dem MAPK, dem Akt/PI3K und dem PLCγ/PKC Signalweg. Da der JAK/STAT Signalweg fuer die Gliogenese wichtig ist, lag unser Fokus auf den anderen Signalwegen. Deren Aktivierung wurde dann mit spezifischen Inhibitoren blockiert und, wie auch in den Vorversuchen, die Wirkung von LIF auf Transkriptionsebene (NeuroD) in neuralen Vorlaeuferzellen bestimmt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Blockierung des PLCγ/PKC Signalweges die NeuroD-Promoteraktivitaet am starksten inhibierte, waehrend auch LIF´s pro-neurale Wirkung verloren ging. Dementsprechend zeigte die Western Blot Analyse, dass die Expression von class III β-tubulin (TuJ1) durch die Anwendung der PKC Inhibitoren am staerksten inhibiert wurde, wobei auch hier die Stimulation durch LIF keine erhoehte Neurogenese mit sich zog. In weiteren Versuchen konnten wir dann mit Hilfe von Immunoprezipitation demonstrieren, dass LIF die Bindung von Ngn an CBP verstaerkte (eine Bindung, welche durch PKC Inhibitoren aufgehoben wurde), was wiederum zu einer erhoehten Bindung dieses Transkriptionskomplexes an den NeuroD Promoter fuehrte, wie unsere Chromatin Immunoprezipitation (ChIP) Daten beweisen. Dies wiederum laesst darauf schliessen, dass womoeglich diese erhoehte Ngn-CBP/NeuroD-Promoter Bindung der Grund fuer die erhoehte NeuroD-Transkriptionsaktivitaet ist daher auch fuer die erhoehte neuronale Differenzierung. Interessanterweise konnten wir auch zeigen, dass Brahma-related gene 1 (Brg1), eine katalytische Untereinheit des SWI/SWF Komplexes, an den Ngn/CBP cotranscriptionalen Komplex bindet und dass diese Bindung durch LIF-Stimulation verstaerkt wurde. Dies suggeriert wiederum, dass auch Brg1 eine wichtige Rolle waehrend der murinen, cortikalen Neurogenese spielt. Dennoch, in folgenden Experimenten verblieb der Fokus auf Ngn und CBP. Um unsere Hypothese zu bestaetigen, dass PKCδ ein moeglicher Mediator des LIF-Effekts sein koennte, zeigten wir zunaechst, dass die PKCδ-Expression in cortikalen NPCs waehrend der Neurogenese erhoeht ist. Desweiteren demonstrierten wir, dass die Inhibition von PKCδ einen aehnliche Wirkung zeigte wie die Inhibition von PKC mit einem generellen PKC Inhibitor: weder war nach PKCδ-Inhibition eine LIF-induzierte NeuroD-Transkription erzielbar, noch wurde nach LIF-Stimulation der pro-neurale Marker class III β-tubulin/TuJ1 in Ngn1-infizierten NPCs exprimiert. Um aber mehr spezifisch die PKC- und PKCδ-Aktivitaet/Expression zu blockieren transfizierten wir NPCs mit PLCγ oder PKCδ siRNA. Unsere Daten zeigten hierbei, dass siRNA-transfizierte Zellen kein class III β-tubulin mehr aufweisen, was darauf hindeuted, dass PKCδ der potentielle Mediator des pro-neuralen LIF-Effekts ist. Durch unsere in vivo Daten demonstrierten wir schliesslich, dass LIF auch hierbei fuer die Neurogenese von Bedeutung ist. Verglichen wurden die Cortices von E13 LIF Het (heterozygote) und KO (knock out) Maeusen mit denen von WT (wild type) Maeusen. Durch Immunohistologie von Hirnschnitten konnten dabei keine groesseren Unterschiede bezueglich der Expression neuraler Marker beobachtet werden, waehrend aber mit Hilfe der Western Blot Analyse, eine quantitativere Methode, gezeigt wurde, dass LIF Het und KO Maeuse weniger pro-neurale Marker im Cortex exprimieren wie WT Mause. Um auch zu beweisen, dass dies auf eine verringerte Transkription von NeuroD zurueckzufuehren ist, demonstrierten wir mit Hilfe des ChIP Assay, dass LIF Het und KO Maeuse weniger Ngn1-CBP Bindung an den NeuroD-Promoter aufweisen wie WT Maeuse. Diese Experimente veranschaulichen einen eleganten Regulationsmechanismus, durch welchen ein einzelner, extrazellulaerer Faktor die unterschiedliche Differenzierung einer Zelle verstaerkt, abhaengig von der Anwesenheit oder Abwesenheit eines einzelnenn intrazellulaeren Faktors. Auch koennen durch die erlangten Resultate Strategien entworfen werden, durch die in Zukunft die Produktion bestimmter Neurone zur Heilung von verschiedenen, neurodegenerativen Krankheiten erhoeht wird.
Tumor hypoxia and nutrient starvation are common phenomena in cancerous tissue. Cells that resist this hostile environment are selected for a more aggressive phenotype, usually accompanied by therapy resistance. The hypoxia inducible factors HIF-1a and HIF-2a play a key role in the adaptive homeostatic responses to these challenging conditions inducing a number of target genes that are involved in the regulation of a variety of cellular processes such as angiogenesis, proliferation, metabolism, self-renewal and cell death/cycle arrest. Thus, the HIF pathway encompasses opposing adaptive responses on tumor growthgrowth promoting abilities on the one hand and growth inhibiting on the other. A recent study in our lab uncovered that this switch between cell death and cell survival critically depends on HIF-2a protein levels. Since PHDs (HIF prolyl hydroxylases) are the main regulators of HIF protein abundance and hypoxia drives the malignant phenotype of tumors, we wanted to characterize HIF regulatory functions of PHDs under hypoxic conditions. Our intention was to reveal the importance of PHD contribution to the opposing functions of HIFs under hypoxia. Characterization of PHD1-4 mRNA and protein expression levels under normoxic and hypoxic conditions in glioblastoma cell lines led to the identification of PHD2 and PHD3 as hypoxia inducible PHD isoforms and highlighted their predominant function under hypoxia. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that HIF mediates the hypoxic induction of PHD2 and 3 within a negative feedback loop, promoting its own degradation during prolonged hypoxia. The functional impact of PHD2 and 3 abundance on cell viability under hypoxic conditions was analyzed by disrupting PHD2 and PHD3 function either through a siRNA mediated approach or by application of the PHD inhibitor DMOG. These experiments uncovered that PHD2 and 3 are protective under hypoxic conditions and that PHD inhibition expedites cell death. Combined HIF and PHD suppression under hypoxic conditions abrogated this increased susceptibility to cell death, clearly showing that PHD2 and 3 act in a negative feedback regulatory loop to limit the HIF response under prolonged hypoxia. With respect to possible future therapeutical applications we co-treated cells with a PHD inhibitor and pro-apoptotic agents staurosporine or TRAIL. Co-challenging tumor cells even potentiated the cell death response, indicating a more widespread protective function of PHD. Taken together PHD2 and 3 protect tumor cells from cell death induction, functioning in a negative feedback regulatory loop to constrain the HIF dependent cell death responses under hypoxia. Interestingly, however, when assessing the role of PHD2 and PHD3 in in vivo tumor growth using an intracranial tumor model, we identified an exclusive tumor suppressor function for PHD3. Loss of PHD3 function enhanced tumor growth whereas increased PHD3 expression diminished the tumor burden. The accelerated tumor growth following PHD3 loss could be attributed to a decrease in the induction of apoptosis and an increase in proliferation. Tumor cells are frequently exposed to temporary and spatial depletion of nutrients. Interestingly, PHD3 loss conferred a growth advantage under growth factor deprivation. The growth regulatory function of PHD3 was isoform specific, HIF independent and importantly, did not require the hydroxylase function of PHD3. Previous reports have uncovered a regulatory function of the PHD system in NF-kB signaling. However, our results demonstrated that NF- kB signaling remained unaffected by alteration in the PHD3 status of the cell. Additionally, the PHD3 tumor suppressor function proved to be independent of two putative PHD3 downstream effectors, ATF4 and KIF1Bb. Mechanistically, PHD3 suppression reduced EGFR internalization, enhancing the amount of EGFR expressed on the cell surface. We further showed that the impaired EGFR internalization during PHD3 loss resulted in receptor hyperactivation under stimulated and growth factor deprived conditions. Importantly, PHD3 physcially associated with the EGFR complex as evidenced by co-immunoprecpitation. Consequently, this extended EGFR activation in PHD3 deficient cells resulted in enhanced downstream activation of EGFR signaling and increased proliferation. Consistent with the interpretation that PHD3 loss is beneficial for tumor growth, we found PHD3 promoter methylation in glioblastoma cell lines, hinting at a epigenetic mechanism to finetune PHD3 expression on top of the hypoxic driven gene regulation. Finally, we demonstrated that PHD3 tumor suppressor function is not restricted to glioblastomas since PHD3 suppression in lung adenocarcinoma accelerated subcutaneous tumor growth. With these findings, we expand the knowledge of PHD3 action from its oxygen sensing role to a regulatory function in growth factor signaling. This clearly discriminates PHD3 from the other isoforms and supports the exclusive tumor suppressor function in glioblastoma. Taken together our results identify a complex role of PHD signaling in cancer and delineate HIF dependent and HIF independent functions of the PHD system. We think that the HIF dependent protective effect of PHD2 and 3 and the HIF independent PHD3 tumor suppressor function are not mutually exclusive, but might be activated according to the heterogeneous intra-tumoral conditions. However, PHD3 hydroxylase activity is dispensable for its HIFindependent tumor suppressor function in glioma. This uncouples PHD3 function from co-factor and co-substrate requirements and allows it to act over a broader physiological range, since its influence on cellular processes is not constrained by the availability of rate limiting factors. It might explain, why the enzymatic independent functions of PHD3 predominate in vivo. Thus, therapeutic modulation of the PHD system to inhibit tumor growth has to be based on these contrasting functions of the PHD system. However, their differential dependence on the hydroxylase activity may facilitate a therapeutic strategy to specifically inhibit or promote the protective versus suppressive functions of the PHD system.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common, age associated neurodegenerative disease that manifests as progressive dementia and is characterized by accumulation of the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide which is a processing product of a transmembrane protein termed Alzheimer Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP). The Aβ peptide is generated by a sequential proteolytic processing of APP by two distinct proteases that are termed β- and γ-secretase. The β-secretase, also called BACE-1 or memapsin 2, belongs to the family of aspartyl proteases. BACE-1 evidently cleaves APP in an acidic endosomal compartment after endocytosis of APP, thereby facilitating Aβ peptide generation.
Sorting of transmembrane proteins is generally controlled by sorting signals in the cytoplasmic domains of the cargo proteins. The short cytoplasmic tail of BACE-1 with 23 amino acids contains a sorting signal of the acidic cluster, di-leucine (ACDL) type. The two Leu residues in this determinant are important for the clathrin mediated endocytosis of BACE-1, whereas the acidic residues together with the Leu are required for the endosomal sorting and recycling of BACE-1 back to the plasma membrane. The ACDL motif binds to the members of the GGA (Golgi-localized γ ear-containg ARF- binding proteins) family (GGA1-GGA3) that are involved in the sorting of BACE-1.
One of the major aims of this study was to address the role of flotillins in the intracellular sorting of BACE-1. This study shows that flotillin-1 directly binds to the di-leucine motif in the cytoplasmic tail of BACE-1, whereas flotillin-2 only shows an association mediated by flotillin-1. Flotillin-1 competes with GGA2 for the binding to BACE-1 tail, and thus influences the endosomal sorting of BACE-1. Importantly, depletion of flotillins results in an altered localization of the wildtype BACE-1, whereas the plasma membrane resident Leu to Ala (LLAA) mutant is not affected. Flotillin knockdown results in an accumulation of BACE-1, implicating reduced degradation and enhanced stability of this protease. Thus, flotillins appear to be important for the cellular targeting of BACE-1 and also influence the amyloidogenic processing of APP, as demonstrated by an increase in the amyloidogenic C-99 processing fragments.
When flotillin depleted cells were subjected to apoptotic stresses including Aβ25-35 synthetic peptide (inducer of the extrinsic apoptosis pathway) or several chemotherapeutic agents (staurosporine, brefeldin A, doxorubicin, carboplatin and paclitaxel: intrinsic apoptosis pathway) and cytotoxicity was determined, various apoptotic markers were activated in flotillin depleted cells. Caspase-3 and GGA3 are well accepted apoptosis markers and an enhanced caspase-3 cleavage was detected upon STS induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y, HeLa, and HaCaT cell lines and increased GGA3 cleavage was observed in MCF7 cell line.
One of the major reasons for the apoptotic sensitivity in the absence of flotillins was a PI3K/Akt signaling defect. Neuroblastoma cells depleted of flotillins showed diminished levels of total Akt, phospho-Akt and phospho-ERK upon STS induced apoptosis. Since PI3K/Akt was the primary survival pathway affected upon STS induced apoptosis, ectopic expression of Akt in neuroblastoma cell line reduced caspase-3 cleavage and retarded apoptosis.
The direct downstream target of Akt is FOXO3a, whose localization was investigated in flotillin depleted cells. A major proportion of FOXO3a was localized in the nucleus of flotillin knockdown cells, implicating that FOXOs are active in these cells and subsequently trigger the transcription of death genes. Strikingly, an essential anti-apoptotic molecule and a major cancer target, Mcl-1, was inherently downregulated in flotillin knockdown cells. Mcl-1 is a chief member of the Bcl-2 family as it plays a pivotal role in cell survival and it is a critical protein in cancer therapeutics as suppression of Mcl-1 protein can curtail the survival and growth of tumorous cells.
Neuroblastoma cells were rescued from undergoing permanent damage due to STS induced apoptosis by overexpression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. Phorbol esters are well known PKC activators, and pre-treatment of neuroblastoma cells with phorbol esters along with staurosporine reduced caspase-3 cleavage.
These results demonstrate that absence of flotillins can sensitize cellular systems to apoptosis induction. The two main characteristics of cancer cells include resistance to apoptosis and unresponsiveness to chemotherapeutic agents. It is a well established fact that impaired apoptosis is central to tumour development. This study implicates that the downregulation of flotillin function can trigger cellular susceptibility and enhances apoptosis in response to conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, flotillins can serve as vital regulators in providing a more rational approach in molecular-targeted therapies for receding cancer growth and survival.
Studies in particular of the last decade showed that active neurogenesis continuously takes place in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles of the adult rodent brain. Neurogenesis in the SVZ leads to migration of neuroblasts within the rostral migratory stream (RMS) and mature neuron formation mainly in the olfactory bulb (OB). According to present understanding, glial cells with astrocytic properties represent the actual adult neural stem cells. The cell types representing the various cellular transition states leading to the formation of mature neurons as well as the mechanisms controlling adult neurogenesis and neuroblast migration are poorly understood. A previous study from this laboratory demonstrated that the ATP-hydrolyzing enzyme nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) is associated with type B cells, the presumptive neural stem cells. NTPDase2 is a protein of the plasma membrane with its catalytic site facing the extracellular space. It hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates to their respective nucleoside diphosphates. This raises the possibility that the signaling pathway via extracellular nucleotides is involved in the control of adult neurogenesis. Neurons as well as glial cells express several subtypes of receptors (P2 receptors) that are responsive to the nucleotides ATP, ADP, UTP, or UDP. P2X receptors are ATP-gated Na+, K+ and Ca2+ permeable ion channels, P2Y receptors are coupled to trimeric G-proteins. In order to probe for a functional role of nucleotides in adult neurogenesis, the present study referred to an in vitro system (neurospheres). Neurospheres produced from isolates of the mouse SVZ and cultured in the presence of EGF and bFGF expressed the neural stem cell marker nestin and also GFAP, S100β, NTPDase2 and tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase. Neurospheres generated from the cells of the subventricular zone were multipotenital. This was revealed by immunostaining of differentiated cells with markers for astrocytes, neurons and oligodendrocytes. The presence of ecto-nucleotidase was verified by analyzing the free phosphate released from nucleotides. The tissue non-specific form of alkaline phosphatase was the predominant enzyme. Both NTPDase2 and TNAP could be identified by immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Hydrolysis was not observed for p-nitrophenyl thymidine monophosphate, a substrate of members of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family (NPP1 to NPP3). Since ecto-nucleotidases control the availability of extracellular nucleotide agonists, neurospheres were studied for the potential expression and functional role of nucleotide receptors. Neurospheres responded to extracellular nucleotides with a transient rise in Ca2+ (ATP = ADP > UTP). The rise in Ca2+ was due to P2Y receptors. The Ca2+ response was unaltered in the absence of extracellular Ca2+ and strongly reduced by thapsigargin, a blocker of internal Ca2+ stores. The P2Y1 antagonist MRS2179 strongly reduced the ATP- or ADP-induced increase in Ca2+, suggesting the involvement of a P2Y1 receptor. In addition, suramin and PPADS, non-selective antagonists for P2 receptors, inhibited most of the Ca2+ response. The agonistic activity of UTP and the lack of response to UDP implied the additional presence of a P2Y2 and/or a P2Y4 receptors and the absence of a functional P2Y6 receptor. RT-PCR experiments demonstrated that neurospheres expressed P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors but not P2Y4 receptor. That the majority of the Ca2+ response to ATP was mediated via P2Y1 receptors was also confirmed by analysis of P2Y1 knockout mice and by application of the P2Y1 receptor-specific antagonist MRS2179. In addition, agonists of P2Y1 and P2Y2 receptors and low concentrations of adenosine augmented cell proliferation inspite of the presence of mitogenic growth factors. Neurosphere cell proliferation was attenuated after application of MRS2179 and in neurospheres from P2Y1 receptor knockout mice. These results infer a nucleotide receptor-mediated synergism that augments growth factor-mediated cell proliferation. Taken together these results suggest that P2Y-mediated nucleotidergic signalling is involved in neurosphere function and possibly also in adult neurogenesis in situ.
Blood vessel formation is a well orchestrated process where multiple components including different cells types, growth factors as well as extracellular matrix proteins act in synergistic and highly regulated manner to support the growth of new blood vessels. During embryonic development this process is marked as vasculogenesis and entails the differentiation of mesodermal cells into angioblasts and their subsequent fusion into a primitive vascular plexus. Angiogenesis, in contrast, describes the formation of new vessels from the pre-existing vasculature and it occurs in the embryo during remodeling of the primitive plexus into a mature vascular network. Furthermore, in the adult, angiogenic processes play a role in various physiological and pathological conditions. Angiogenesis is governed by a set of factors and molecular mechanisms whose identification has been a major focus of cardiovascular research for the past several decades. Most recently, Epidermal growth factor-like domain 7 (EGFL7) has been described as a novel molecular player in this context. This secreted protein is produced by endothelial cells and has been implicated in vessel development. Studies performed in zebrafish revealed an important role for EGFL7 in lumen formation during vasculogenesis although the underlying molecular mechanism has not been elucidated yet. In contrast, the investigation of EGFL7’s functions during angiogenic sprouting has faced several challenges and the role of EGFL7 in angiogenesis remained elusive. The purpose of this thesis was to identify the functions of EGFL7 during angiogenic mode of vessel formation in a systematic fashion using numerous in vitro as well as in vivo approaches.
Previously it has been suggested that EGFL7 might associate with the extracellular matrix from where it could exert its effects. Indeed, we could show that EGFL7 accumulates on the outer surface of endothelial cells in vivo by demonstrating its co-localization with collagen IV, a major constituent of the basal lamina. Furthermore, after its secretion to the extracellular matrix (ECM), EGFL7 seemed to interact with some components of the extracellular matrix including fibronectin and vitronectin, but not collagens and laminin.
A major group of receptors that mediate the interaction between the cells and the ECM are integrin receptors. Our co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that EGFL7 associated with integrin αvβ3 which is highly expressed in endothelial cells and known to be important for vessel growth. Importantly, this EGFL7-αvβ3 integrin interaction was dependent on Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif present within the second EGF-like domain of EGFL7 protein. Adhesion assays performed with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) revealed that EGFL7 promoted endothelial cell adhesion compared to BSA used as a negative control, however, adhesion seemed to be less efficient as compared to bona fide ECM proteins such as fibronectin and vitronectin. In addition, cultivation of endothelial cells on EGFL7 was characterized by the absence of mature focal adhesions and stress fibers, but was paralleled by increased phosphorylation of kinases typical for integrin activation signaling cascade such as FAK, Src and Akt. This led us to the hypothesis that EGFL7 creates an environment that supports a motile phenotype of endothelial cells by serving as a modulator of existing interactions between the cells and the surrounding matrix. Indeed, EGFL7 increased random migration of HUVEC on fibronectin in an αvβ3 integrin dependent manner as shown using a live cell imaging platform. Most importantly, this was paralleled by a decrease in endothelial cell adhesion to fibronectin which is consistent with previous reports on secreted proteins that support a medium strength of adhesion and such promote cellular migration. To assess the overall effect of EGFL7 on the process of blood formation several in vitro and in vivo approaches were employed. First, the addition of EGFL7 to Matrigel injected subcutaneously into mice significantly increased the invasion of endothelial cells into the plugs. Second, a spheroid-based sprouting assay in three-dimensional collagen matrix clearly demonstrated the ability of EGFL7 to support angiogenic sprouting in an integrin dependent manner. This is consistent with the observed effects of EGFL7 on endothelial cell migration. Third, using in vivo assays such as the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay as well as a zebrafish model system we were able to validate the importance of the EGFL7-integrin interaction for the process of angiogenesis in vivo. Taken together, I identified some of the major cellular functions EGFL7 modulates during angiogenesis. In addition, with integrin αvβ3 I unraveled a novel interaction partner of EGFL7 that delivers a mechanistical explanation for EGFL7’s effects on blood vessel formation. Most importantly, data presented in this PhD thesis contribute substantially to the existing literature on EGFL7 unambiguously assigning a role for this protein in the process of angiogenesis.
The brain is characterized by its immune privileged state. However, recent studies suggest an extended contribution of hematopoietic cells to the brain. After transplantation of genetically labeled bone marrow into bone marrow depleted mice, not only labeled blood cells but also labeled neurons and other non-hematopoietic cells can be observed. Initially interpreted as transdifferentiated hematopoietic stem cells, this contribution later was identified as cell fusion of hematopoietic cells and neurons. Our lab previously addressed the question whether these fusion events also occur under non-invasive conditions. A Cre-LoxP based transgenic mouse line was used to irreversibly label all hematopoietic cells. In these mice, Cre expression is controlled by a hematopoietic promoter, thus causing recombination and subsequent marker gene expression restricted to blood cells. Interestingly, contribution of these hematopoietic cells to non-hematopoietic tissues was observed, but fusion could be excluded as the underlying mechanism. The Cre mRNA or protein seems to reach the non-hematopoietic cells from an external source. Extracellular vesicles, specifically exosomes, are increasingly recognized as a vehicle for the intercellular transfer of cellular components such as proteins or mRNAs. However, if they contribute to signaling between tissues in vivo is completely unknown and would represent a major paradigm shift for intercellular communication. Therefore, the aim of this PhD study is to investigate whether an exosomal transfer between the hematopoietic system and the brain exists. To confirm the previous results, a second Cre-LoxP mouse line that expresses the Cre recombinase under a different hematopoietic promoter is used additionally. Both mouse lines are screened for recombination and show comparable numbers and types of different non-hematopoietic cells. Besides hepatocytes and cells in lung and intestine, recombined Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum are detectable. To assess the influence of inflammation on these recombination events, different lesions such as peripheral tumors or peritonitis are applied to the mice. Inflammatory stimuli strongly increase the numbers of recombined Purkinje neurons. These neurons remain mononuclear, indicating that fusion does not occur. Also in human cerebellar material, no evidence for inflammation induced cell fusion is detectable. To screen for Cre recombinase containing exosomes, exosome purification protocols such as differential ultracentrifugation and sucrose gradient fractioning, are applied. The exosomal content is analyzed with nested PCR and western blot. Hematopoietically expressed Cre mRNA is detectable in blood plasma and hematopoietic cell culture conditioned medium. Further analysis reveals that this Cre mRNA but no Cre protein is contained in exosomes. The exosomal ability to induce recombination is investigated by injections into Cre reporter mice. After direct cerebellar injection, exosomes are sufficient to induce recombination of Purkinje neurons. Brain tissue of mice that received an inflammation is analyzed further to reveal other recombined cell types. The main immune cells of the brain, microglia, are not recombined. Mainly neuronal cell types are recombined in different areas of the brain. The observations made in this study are consistent with the hypothesis that a previously unrecognized way to communicate RNA based signals between the immune system and the brain exists. Specifically neurons are target cells for the uptake of hematopoietic exosomes and seem able to translate exosomal mRNA into functional protein. Microglial cells are neither involved as target cells, nor do they release Cre containing exosomes. By using the Cre-LoxP system, in vivo tracing of exosomes could be achieved for the first time. With this knowledge, other exosomal routes can be uncovered in future. The discovery of the exosomal transfer between the blood and the brain enables further research about the relevance of this signaling pathway. It will be important to investigate its role especially in the context of neural malfunctions and further studies might help to find new therapeutical approaches.
Identification of disease modulating compounds in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (JNCL)
(2016)
Mutationen im CLN3 Gen verursachen die neurodegenerative Erkrankung juvenile neuronale Zeroidlipofuszinose (JNCL). Bei dieser Erkrankung sind die Autophagie, der lysosomale pH Wert und der mitochondriale Metabolismus beeinträchtigt. Störungen dieser Prozesse führen zu einer erhöhten Verletzlichkeit neuronaler Zellen gegenüber alters- und umweltbedingten Schäden, einer Anhäufung von Autophagosomen und lysosomalem Speichermaterial, Zelltod und Neurodegeneration. Um die JNCL zu erforschen bedienen wir uns eines Zellmodels aus der Maus, welches die häufigste krankheitsauslösende CLN3 Mutation im Menschen, die Deletion der Exons 7 und 8, nachbildet. Die aus dem Kleinhirn dieser Mäuse stammenden cerebellaren Körnerstammzellen werden als CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen, solche aus wild-typ Mäusen als CbCln3+/+ Zellen bezeichnet. Die JNCL ist nicht heilbar und die Entwicklung von Wirkstoffen steht noch am Anfang.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Durchführung eines Hochdursatzscreenings um Wirkstoffe zu identifizieren, welche eine Anhäufung von Autophagosomen in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen verhindern können. Unter 1750 verschiedenen untersuchten Wirkstoffen konnten wir 28 aktive „Hits“ identifizieren und stellten fest, dass Kalziumkanalblocker, Östrogene und HMG-CoA-Reduktase Inhibitoren gehäuft vertreten waren. Eine sorgfältige Untersuchung die möglichen Interaktionen der aktiven Wirkstoffe mit zellulären Signalwegen und die Analyse ihrer Dosis-Wirkungskurven unterstützte uns bei der Auswahl von Verapamil, Nicardipin und Fluspirilen zur näheren Untersuchung. Diese Wirkstoffe sind Kalziumkanalblocker und Fluspirilen blockt auch D2 Dopaminrezeptoren.
Außerdem untersuchten und quantifizierten wir mitochondriale Phänotypen in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen. Unsere Untersuchungen ergaben, dass Mitochondrien in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen einer signifikanten Hyperfusion unterliegen und ein schwächeres Membranpotenzial aufweisen. Weiterhin fanden wir eine Verringerung der maximalen der mitochondrialen Elektronentransportkapazität und eine verringerte Aktivität des Enzyms Zitratsynthase, welches die Effizienz des Zitratzyklus bestimmt.
Fluspirilen, Verapamil und, in geringerem Ausmaß, Nicardipin, verbesserten einige krankheitsbedingte lysosomale und mitochondriale Phänotypen. Des Weiteren konnten Verapamil und Nicardipin, nicht aber Fluspirilen, den erhöhten zellulären Kalziumspiegel in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen absenken. Erniedrigungen im Kalziumgehalt können durch die Inhibition der kalziumabhängigen Protease Calpain 1 zu einer Induktion der Autophagie führen. Wir untersuchten, ob eine chemische Inhibition der Calpain 1-Protease die Anzahl der Autophagosomen in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen senkt, und stellten fest, dass dies nicht der Fall ist. Eine Inhibition von Calpain 1 führte lediglich zu einem Anstieg der Zahl zellulärer Autophagosomen. Als Nächstes untersuchten wir die Auswirkung der Wirkstoffbehandlung auf den Autophagiefluss. Verapamil und Nicardipin hatten keinen Einfluss auf den Autophagiefluss in der getesteten Konzentration in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen während Fluspirilen die Autophagie induzierte. Gleichzeitig stellten wir fest, dass hohe Dosen von Nicardipin und Verapamil teilweise vor einem Verlust des lysosomalen pH-Werts durch eine Behandlung mit Bafilomycin A1 schützen konnten. Da Fluspirilen auch ein Dopaminrezeptorblocker ist, untersuchten wir die Auswirkung einer erhöhten Dosis von Dopamin auf die Zahl der Autophagosomen. Wir fanden, dass eine mittlere Dosierung von Dopamin einen Trend zu einer leichten Verringerung von Autophagosomen in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen zur Folge hat.
Wir vermuten, dass die Kalziumkanalblocker Verapamil und Nicardipin und der Dopaminrezeptorblocker Fluspirilen unterschiedliche zelluläre Signalwege benutzen, aber letztendlich um ähnliche Botenstoffe verwenden, um die Funktion der Lysosomen in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen zu verbessern. Die Verringerung des intrazellulären Kalziumgehalts durch Verapamil und Nicardipin führt zu einer Aktivierung von Adenylatzyklasen, welche eine Erhöhung des intrazellulären cAMP Spiegels herbeiführen. Fluspirilen inhibiert Dopaminrezeptoren vom Typ D2 (D2DR), was zu einer selektiven Aktivierung von Dopaminrezeptoren des Typs D5 (D5DR) führen könnte. Im Gegensatz zu D2 führen D5D Rezeptoren zu einer Aktivierung von Adenylatzyklasen und einer Erhöhung des cAMP Spiegels. cAMP aktiviert die Protein Kinase A (PKA), welche durch eine Proteinphosphorylierung von lysosomalen Chloridkanälen und Protonenpumpen die lysosomale Aktivität erhöht. Dies führt zu einer Verbesserung des Abbaus von Autophagosomen und lysosomalem Speichermaterial und zu einer verbesserten Zellgesundheit in CbCln3Δex7/8/Δex7/8 Zellen.
Eine Verbesserung der lysosomalen Funktion in der JNCL kann einen wirksamen Therapieansatz ergeben. Wir hoffen, dass die hier vorgestellten Methoden und Ergebnisse einen ersten Schritt in diese Richtung darstellen.
Active neurogenesis continuously takes place in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian brain. The dentate gyrus of the adult rodent hippocampus contains an astrocytelike cell population that is regarded as residual radial glia. These cells reside with their cell bodies in the subgranular layer (SGL). Radial processes traverse the granule cell layer (GCL) and form bushy ramifications in the inner molecular layer (IML). The residual radial glial cells apparently represent neuronal progenitor cells that can give rise to functionally integrated granule cells. To date the cellular and molecular events driving a subpopulation of these cells into neurogenesis as well as the cellular transition states are poorly understood. The present study shows, that in the mouse dentate gyrus, this cell type selectively expresses surfacelocated ATPhydrolyzing activity and is immunopositive for nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2). NTPDase2 is an ectoenzyme and hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates such as ATP or UTP to their respective nucleoside diphosphates. The enzyme becomes expressed in the hippocampus during late embryogenesis from E17 onwards, and is thus not involved in early brain development. Its embryonicpattern of expression mirrors dentate migration of neuroblasts and the formation of the primary and finally the tertiary dentate matrix. NTPDase2 is also expressed by a transient population of cortical radial glia from late embryonic development until postnatal day 5. NTPDase2 can be employed as a novel markerfor defining cellular transition states along the neurogenic pathway. It is associated with subpopulations of GFAP and nestinpositive cells. These intermediate filaments are typically expressed by the progenitor cells of the dentate gyrus. In addition there is a considerable overlap with doublecortinand PSANCAM positive cells. The expression of the microtubuleassociated protein doublecortin and of PSANCAM which are expressed by migrating neuroblasts is indicative of a transition of progenitors to a neural phenotype or an immature form of granule cell. NTPDase2 is no longer associated with young neurons and with maturegranule cells, as indicated by the lack of doubleimmunostaining for III tubulin and NeuN, respectively. Furthermore, β S100positive astrocytes do not express NTPDase2 validating that NTPDase2 is also not associated with later stages of gliogenesis. Experiments with the Sphase marker bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) demonstrate that NTPDase2positive cell proliferate. Postmitotic BrdU-labeled cells preferentially acquire an NTPDase2positive phenotype. Many of these cells were also positive for GFAP. The contribution of BrdUlabeled cells positive for NTPDase2 increased with time from 2 h to 72 h, validating a strong association of NTPDase2 with proliferating cells of the dentate gyrus. The colocalization studies with various markers and the results of the experiments suggestthat NTPDase2 is associated with cell types of varying maturation states but not with mature neurons or astrocytes. Studies on the formation of neurospheres from the dentate gyrus validate previous data suggesting that the hippocampal progenitors have little capacity for self renewal in vitro. In situ hybridization results indicate the presence of one of the metabotropic purinergic receptor subtypes (the P2Y1 receptor) within the adult neurogenic regions, the dentate gyrus and the lateral walls of the lateral ventricles. A patchclamp analysis demonstrates the presence of functional ionotropic nucleotide receptor (P2X receptors) in progenitor cells expressing nestin promotordriven GFP. They suggest that the signaling pathway via extracellular nucleotides and nucleotide receptors may play a role in the control of adult hippocampal neurogenesis.
Juvenile neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis (JNCL) is a rare lysosomal storage disease in children with lethal outcome and no therapy. The origin of JNCL has been traced to autosomal recessive mutations in the CLN3 gene, and ~85% of the JNCL patients harbor a 1.02 kb deletion that removes the exons 7 and 8 and the surrounding intronic DNA (CLN3Δex7/8). So far, structure, function and localization of the CLN3 protein remain elusive. However, there is strong evidence that CLN3 modulates a process or condition that is essential in many cellular pathways. Lipid metabolism and antero-/retrograde transport, two mechanisms CLN3 was previously implicated in, fulfill these requirements. Notably, also a bioactive group of glycosphingolipids referred to as gangliosides is tightly interrelated with these functions. Furthermore, a-series gangliosides have been shown to be involved in the development and sustenance of the brain, where they are essential for neurite outgrowth and cell survival. Defects in ganglioside metabolism were shown to play a crucial role in many lysosomal storage disorders. However, the contribution of gangliosides to NCL pathology is largely unknown.
The present study analyzed central enzymes and metabolites of the a-series ganglioside pathway in a JNCL cell model. The core finding was, thereby, the reduced amount of the neuroprotective ganglioside GM1 in homozygous CbCln3Δex7/8 cells. This was caused by the enhanced action of the GM1-degrading multimeric enzyme complex and in particular, by the upregulation of protein levels and increased enzyme activity of β-galactosidase (Glb1).
Improved binding of Glb1 to substrate-carrying membranes was provided by an increase in LBPA levels. In combination with other smaller alterations in the ganglioside pattern, a shift towards less complex gangliosides became present. The resulting loss of neuroprotection may be the reason for the multifocal pathology in homozygous CbCln3Δex7/8 cells.
The second part of the present study investigated the cellular mechanisms behind the altered ganglioside profile with regard to the potential role of CLN3. Here, the anterograde transport of GM1 to the plasma membrane presented a positive correlation with the amount of full-length CLN3. In case of the truncated protein this correlation was missing, resulting in reduced PM staining with CTxB-FITC. However, transfection of full-length CLN3 in these cells restored the CTxB-FITC intensity. Based on the neuroprotective role of GM1, the corresponding increase in GM1 levels may be the cause for the restoration effects observed in previous studies using full-length CLN3. Hence, administration of GM1 was expected to improve cell viability of homozygous CbCln3Δex7/8 cells and beyond that to rescue potentially some disease phenotypes. However, no effect could be observed. The reason for this may be reduced caveolar uptake and the mislocalization of ganglioside GM1 to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and redirection towards degradative compartments.
Both are in line with the idea of an impaired endocytic flux in CLN3 deficiency. The observed localization of CLN3 in the TGN suggests a potential role for CLN3 in the lipid sorting machinery, subsequently altering membrane composition and its regulatory functions. The resulting imbalance may affect many of the cellular processes impaired in JNCL.