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In this study I analysed past and recent Daphnia populations from Lake Constance and Greifensee. Herefore, I first established a set of microsatellite markers applicable to European Hyalodaphnia species (chapter 1). Primers were also identified for species specific fragment lengths. 32 markers were then available to characterize the resting egg banks of Daphnia galeata and D. hyalina. Chapter 2 presents the reconstruction of the taxonomic composition in these two ecologically different lakes. This part of my work shows that the eutrophication that occurred in both lakes in the mid of the last century has strongly influenced the Daphnia populations. In both lakes Daphnia galeata established and hybridized with the indigenous D. hyalina. Interspecific hybridization resulted in introgression on the mitochondrial and nuclear level. In chapter 3 resting eggs from the sediments of the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s were characterized with microsatellite markers. The aim was to specify the extent of interspecific hybridization and nuclear introgression assuming that the genetic exchange between both species has an impact on their adaptation to their habitat. In life history experiments D. galeata and D. galeata x hyalina clones hatched from different time periods showed significant differential responses to food quality. Therefore, the question had to be answered how the Daphnia resting egg bank and the planktonic population are connected. In chapter 4 hatching experiments were conducted to bridge this gap of scientific knowledge in the life cycle of cyclic parthenogenetic waterfleas. Only D. galeata individuals were able to establish a clonal lineage after maturity. All observed recombinant individuals did not reproduce at all or firstly went through another sexual phase of reproduction i.e. produced resting eggs. In order to compare the findings of chapter 4 with the taxon composition of the recent planktonic population of Daphnia in Lake Constance, samples were taken over one season (between May 2005 and September 2006). During the season, the taxonomic composition of Daphnia changes severely with D. galeata being most abundant during the warm season and D. hyalina in the cold season. Moreover, some individuals were detected, that did not follow this pattern. With mitochondrial analysis those individuals were identified as mitochondrial introgressants and processed to life history experiments. Significant differences in the somatic growth rate under different temperatures (5°C, 12.5°C and 20°C) were related to the origin of the mitochondrial genome rather than the nuclear taxonomic assignment of the individual.
The findings of this study show that all organisms exposed to rapid ecological changes and their microevolutionary reaction to those.
The increasing resistance of almost all pathogenic bacteria to antibiotics (multidrug resistance) causes a severe threat to public health. The mechanisms underlying multidrug resistance include the induced over expression of multidrug transporters which extrude a variety of lipophilic and toxic substrates in an energy dependent fashion through the membrane out of the cell. These proteins are found in all transporter families. The work described in this thesis is dedicated to drug-proton antiporters from the small multidrug resistance (SMR) family. These efflux pumps with just four transmembrane helices per monomer are so far the smallest transporters discovered. Their oligomeric state, topology, three dimensional structure, catalytic cycle and transport mechanism are still rather controversial. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to directly address these questions for the small multidrug resistance proteins Halobacterium salinarium Hsmr and Escherichia coli (E. coli) EmrE using a number of biophysical methods such as NMR, transport assays, mass spectrometry and analytical ultracentrifugation. Especially the work on Hsmr has been challenging due to the halophilic nature of this protein. In Chapter 1, key questions and the most important biophysical techniques are introduced followed by Material and Methods in Chapter 2. Depending on experimental requirements, cell free or ‘classical’ in vivo expression has been used for this thesis. Cell free expression as an option for the production of small multidrug transporters has been explored in Chapter 3. It has been possible to produce the SMR family members Hsmr, EmrE, TBsmr and YdgF in vitro. The expression of Hsmr was investigated in more detail under different experimental conditions. Hsmr was either refolded from precipitate or maintained in a soluble form during expression in the presence of detergents and liposomes. Furthermore, amino acids for which no auxotrophic strains were available could be labelled successfully. This expression system has been also used for preparing labelled samples of EmrE as described in Chapter 9. In vivo in E. coli expression of Hsmr, as described in Chapter 4, provided large amounts of proteins if fermenter production was used. Uniform labelling and selective unlabelling with stable isotopes (13C, 15N) for NMR spectroscopy was achieved in vivo in a more efficient and cost effective manner than using the cell free approach for this protein. Hsmr could be purified successfully from both in vitro and in vivo expression media. Hsmr is expressed in vivo and in vitro with N-terminal formylation. The Nterminal formylation is unstable and Hsmr in the presence of low salt concentrations was amenable to N-terminal degradation. It was found that Hsmr shows longest stability in Fos-ß-choline® 12 and sodium dodecyl sulphate, but best reconstitution conditions were found, when dodecyl maltoside is used and exchanged with Escherichia coli lipids. A molar protein lipid ratio of 1 to 100, amenable to solid state nuclear magnetic resonance, has been achieved. Sample homogeneity was shown by freeze fracture electron microscopy. The oligomeric state of Hsmr in detergent has been assessed by SDS PAGE, blue native PAGE, size exclusion chromatography, analytical ultracentrifugation and laser induced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID) as described in Chapter 5. A concentration and detergent dependent monomer-oligomer equilibrium has been found by all methods. The activity of Hsmr under the sample preparation conditions used here was shown using radioactive and fluorescence binding as well as fluorescence and electrochemical transport assays (Chapter 6). For transport studies, a stable pH gradient was generated by co-reconstitution of Hsmr with bacteriorhodopsin and subsequent sample illumination. Based on the observed long term stability of Hsmr in Fos-ß-choline® 12 and sodium dodecyl sulphate, liquid state NMR experiments were attempted in order to assess the correct folding of Hsmr in detergent micelles (Chapter 7). 1D proton and 2D HSQC spectra of U-15N Hsmr revealed a poor spectral dispersion, low resolution and only a small number of peaks. These are at least partly due to long rotational correlation times of the large protein detergent complex. This problem has been overcome by applying solid-state NMR to Hsmr reconstituted into E. coli lipids (Chapter 8). Uniform 13C labelled samples were prepared and two dimensional proton-driven spin diffusion and double quantum-single quantum correlation spectra were acquired successfully. Unfortunately, the spectral resolution was not yet sufficient for further structural studies. Reasons for the observed linebroadening could be structural heterogeneity or molecular motions which interfere with the NMR timescale. Therefore, the protein mobility has been probed using static 2H solid state NMR on Ala-d3-Hsmr. It could be shown, that parts of Hsmr are remarkably mobile in the membrane and that this mobility can be limited by the addition of the substrate ethidium bromide. Ethidium bromide as well as tetraphenylphosphonium (TPP+) is typical multidrug transporter substrates. The membrane interaction of TPP+ in DMPC membranes has been resolved by 1H MAS NMR. It was found that it penetrates into the interface region of the lipid bilayers and therefore behaves like many other transporter substrates adding to the hypothesis that the membrane could act as a pre-sorting filter. Finally, Chapter 9 is dedicated to the characterisation of the essential and highly conserved residue Glu-14 in EmrE by solid-state NMR. In order to avoid spectral overlap, the single Glu EmrE E25A mutant was chosen instead of the wildtype. The protein has been produced in vitro to take advantage of reduced isotope scrambling in the cell free expression system as verified by analytical NMR spectroscopy. Correct labelling of EmrE was tested by MALDI-TOF and solid-state NMR. The dimeric state of DDM solubilised EmrE has been probed by LILBID. The labelled protein was reconstituted into E. coli lipids to ensure a native membrane environment. Activity was determined by measuring ethidium bromide transport. Freeze fracture EM revealed very homogeneous protein incorporation even after many days of MAS NMR experiments. 2D 13C double quantum filtered experiments were used to obtain chemical shift and lineshape information of Glu-14 in EmrE. Two distinct populations were found with backbone chemical shift differences of 4 - 6 ppm which change upon substrate binding. These findings indicate a structural asymmetry at the assumed dimerisation interface and are discussed in the context of a model for shared substrate/proton binding. These studies represent the first successful use of cell free expression to prepare labelled membrane proteins for solid-state NMR and allow for the first time an NMR insight into the binding pocket of a multidrug efflux pump.
The mammary gland of mice serves as a model system for studying differentiation in an adult animal. With the beginning of pregnancy the mammary epithelial cells undergo functional differentiation to produce milk for nourishment of the young. The transcription factor STAT5 mediates the cytokine-induced induction of the milk proteins during pregnancy and lactation in response to the lactogenic hormone prolactin. In addition to transcription factors that mediate transcription of their target genes by recruitment of the general transcription machinery to the DNA-regulator regions, specific post-translational modifications on the N-terminal tails of histones also influence expression. These histone modifications can affect chromatin structure, which is a main control barrier to transcription, by directly altering accessibility of the chromatin and by providing binding surfaces for protein complexes that can further modulate chromatin structure and regulate transcription. In this work N-terminal histone modification marks that associate with open, permissive and repressed chromatin where investigated in different regions of two milk protein genes during mammary gland development. Using the chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays increased acetylation of histone H3 and H4 at the 5’ region, promoter and transcribed regions of β-casein and whey acidic protein (WAP) gene were observed during pregnancy and lactation when these genes are expressed. The presence of these histone marks, which are associated with a relaxed chromatin structure, correlates with the recruitment of STAT5A and STAT5B to the promoter containing regulatory regions as well as the detection of the phosphorylated RNA polymerase II in the transcribed gene region. Both di- and tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 4, that mark permissive and active chromatin respectively, were enriched in tissue from pregnant and lactating mice. In comparison tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 27, a mark associated with repressed chromatin, could be observed during all stages of mammary gland tissue investigated, but appears slightly elevated in the tissue from virgin mice when β-casein and WAP are not expressed. Together these results illustrate that the expression of the two milk proteins genes at distinct stages of mammary gland differentiation correlate with specific changes in histone modifications. In mammary gland tissue STAT5A is important for the mammary gland epithelial cell differentiation and survival during lactation. Yet many genomic target regions that STAT5A actually bind and which are involved in regulation of gene expression during lactation still remain unknown. Therefore, the second part of this thesis was focused on the identification of novel STAT5-binding sites that are differentiation specifically bound by STAT5A in mammary gland tissue during lactation. In summary, the results demonstrate that the ChIP cloning method was employed successfully for the cloning of a STAT5A library and the identification of new STAT5 targets in mammary gland tissue from lactating mice. Nine of the newly identified STAT5-binding targets were verified to differentiation specifically bind STAT5A and STAT5B in vivo during pregnancy and lactation. Even though the selection of the tested clones was biased towards STAT5-binding sites near or at known genes and for multiple STAT5 binding sites, only one out of the nine validated STAT5-binding regions is located in a traditional defined proximal promoter. Except for two STAT5-binding regions, which are located at least 10 kb from the next annotated known gene, six are located in the intronic regions of annotated mRNA or EST transcripts. Three, out of four verified STAT5-binding regions tested in reporter gene assays for functionality, display the ability to drive reporter gene activity in a STAT5 dependent manner. This transcriptional activity is due to the STAT5-binding sites within the cloned regions as determined by mutational analysis. Of special interest is a STAT5-binding region that contains one STAT5 and three STAT-like sites within a 339 bp region that is evolutionary conserved by approximately 80% between the mouse and human genome. This STAT5-binding region lies about 62 kb 5 prime of the nuclear factor I/B gene. The expression of the NFI/B mRNA transcript correlates with the in vivo association of STAT5A to the conserved region during the mammary gland differentiation. Together, these results suggest that this STAT5-binding might be a cis-regulatory region that potentially mediates STAT5 induced NFI/B gene expression in mice during lactation.