Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität)
Refine
Year of publication
- 2006 (10) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (10)
Language
- English (10) (remove)
Has Fulltext
- yes (10)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (10)
Keywords
- 5-Lipoxygenase (1)
- Apoptosis (1)
- Azide (1)
- Biochemie (1)
- Biotechnologie (1)
- Blut (1)
- Boswelliasäuren (1)
- Breast cancer (1)
- Brustkrebs (1)
- Chromatin (1)
Institute
- Biowissenschaften (5)
- Biochemie und Chemie (3)
- Pharmazie (2)
Today the structure of photosystem II, which is the enzyme responsible for the evolution of molecular oxygen by plants, algae and cyanobacteria, is known up to a resolution of about 3.0 Å in cyanobacteria (Loll et al., 2005). Photosystem II of higher plants, which shows some differences compared to the photosystem II of cyanobacteria, is not resolved in such high detail, yet (8-10 Å) (Rhee et al., 1998; Hankamer et al., 2001a). Therefore, the molecular structure of PSII of higher plants and its adjacent antenna complexes remains in the focus of the current research. One of the major problems when working with photosystem II is its relative instability during isolation. Together with the antenna proteins and several other proteins, some of which still have an unclear function, PSII forms a huge multi-protein-complex, which tends to fall apart during classical preparation methods. In order to achieve a faster and milder method of purification for PSII, four different His-tags have been added to one of the subunits of PSII. The gene targeted in this study is called psbE and codes for the α-chain of cytochrome b559, an integral part of PSII. The gene for PsbE is encoded in the chloroplast genome. The His-tags, which were employed in this work, consist of six or ten consecutive histidine aminoacid residues, which were fused to the N-terminus of the protein, either with or without a cleavage site for the protease “Factor Xa”. The N-terminus of PsbE is located on the more accessible stromal side of the thylakoid membrane. After inserting the psbE gene in a vector plasmid, in which the recognition site for the restriction endonuclease SacI had been eliminated, the different His-tags were generated by PCR with purposefully altered primers. In a final cloning step, a gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotics spectinomycin and streptomycin, was added to the DNA construct. Subsequently, the so-called biolistic transformation method (“gene gun”) was applied to introduce this genetically engineered plasmid DNA to Nicotiana tabacum chloroplasts (Bock & Hagemann, 2000). Through the processes of homologous recombination that take place in the chloroplast, the plastid encoded wildtype psbE gene was replaced by its His-tag containing counterparts. After several rounds of regenerating plants on antibiotic-containing medium, successful transformation was confirmed through PCR methods. By self fertilisation of fully regenerated plants, seeds were produced from tobacco strains, which carried only the mutated psbE gene. Plants cultivated from these seeds showed no distinctive phenotype under the chosen growth conditions, in respect to wildtype plants. The presence of the His-tag in this F1 generation was again confirmed with PCR methods. Measurements of oxygen evolution and pulse amplitude modulated fluorescence (PAM), carried out with preparations of wildtype and transgenic tobacco strains, revealed no differences for photochemical or non-photochemical quenching between both types. However, the oxygen evolution capacity of transgenic tobacco thylakoids compared to the wildtype was significantly reduced, although the chlorophyll content in relation to the leaf area was almost identical. This hints at a reduced amount of photosystem II complexes in the thylakoid membranes of transgenic tobacco. This alteration could be related to the mutation of cytochrome b559, because, amongst other functions, this subunit was shown to be important for the assembly of photosystem II (Morais et al., 1998). If solubilised thylakoid preparations of His-tagged plant strains were applied to a Ni-NTA column, photosystem II was selectively bound to the matrix. After washing away most of the contaminations, photosystem II core complexes could be eluted with imidazole-containing buffer. Photosystem II prepared in this way, displayed a drastic reduction of the peripheral light-harvesting complexes (LHCI & LHCII) and photo-system I reaction centres. This could be demonstrated by the loss of chlorophyll b and xanthophyll bands (LHCs) in absorption spectra, a small blue-shift of the chlorophyll a Qy absorption (PSI) and the respective band patterns in polyacrylamide gel electro-phoresis. The photosystem II complexes prepared in this way can now be put to use in different structural studies, like two-dimensional or three-dimensional crystallisation and spectroscopic measurements. Another photosynthetic pigment-protein complex of interest is the fucoxanthin-chlorophyll a/c-binding protein of diatoms, because eukaryotic algae, like diatoms, are important factors of oceanic ecosystems and account for a large part of marine biomass production. In order to facilitate ultra-fast time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopy and subsequent modelling of the kinetic traces, FCPs were prepared by sucrose-gradient ultra-centrifugation and their pigment stoichiometries determined by HPLC. Combining the spectroscopic data (Papagiannakis et al., 2005) with protein sequence alignments (Eppard & Rhiel, 1998) and the structure of the homologous higher plant LHCIIb (Kühlbrandt et al., 1994), a hypothetical model for the structure of FCP could be proposed (Fig. IV.3)
The mammary gland is a perfect system to study the pathways regulating organogenesis during development of an individual. The proper development of the mammary gland requires a tight coordination of expression of many genes involved in proliferation and differentiation. The aim of this work was to identify novel genes and pathways involved in the development of the mammary gland and to find possible correlations between the signaling pathways and their downstream targets that are activated during proliferation and functional differentiation of mammary epithelial cells. In this study rapamycin has been used to inhibit the mTOR protein to analyze its role during mammary gland development. Further a genomic approach was used to identify genes differently expressed during this process. The analysis of the effects caused by the inhibition of the mTOR signaling pathway by using rapamycin on mammary epithelial cells for the first time demonstrate that mTOR plays central role in the coordination of pathways governing the proliferation and differentiation of epithelial cells during mammary gland development. More detailed analysis led to the identification of Id1 and Id2 as two major downstream effectors of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating proliferation and differentiation respectively. The genomics analysis revealed several interesting genes involved in the regulation of a proliferative or secretory phenotype of normal epithelial cells in vitro. Various genes identified by microarray analysis are of high interest and to determine their role in mammary gland development. Among the identified genes some contribute to process of proliferation like Nol5 and Kpna2, whereas other genes are required for proper functional differentiation such as Nkd2 and Cited4. Importantly, the mentioned candidate genes are also interesting regarding cancer development, since deregulation of their expression might contribute to tumor formation. The findings described in this work clearly contribute to our better understanding of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating expression of the genes involved in the development of mammary gland. In addition, the presented results should allow broadening our view of the events that contribute to breast cancer development and help to design better anticancer therapies in the future.
Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) account for 20-40% of all open reading frames in fully sequenced genomes and they are target of approximately 60% of all modern drugs. So far, cellular expression systems are often very insufficient for the high-level production of IMPs. Toxic effects, instability or formation of inclusion bodies are frequently observed effects that prevent the synthesis of sufficient amounts of functional protein. I have successfully established an individual cell-free (CF) expression system to overcome these IMP synthesis difficulties. The CF system was established in two different expression modes. If no hydrophobic compartment is provided, the IMPs precipitate in the reaction mixture. Interestingly, these insoluble proteins are found to differ from inclusion bodies as they readily solubilize in mild detergents and the bacterial small multi drug transporter EmrE, expressed in the insoluble mode was shown to reconstitute into liposomes in an active form. Alternatively, IMPs can be synthesized in a soluble way by supplementing the CF system with detergents. A comprehensive overview of 24 commonly used detergents was provided by analyzing their impact on the CF system as well as their ability to keep three structurally very different proteins in solution. The class of long chain polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers turned out to be most suitable for soluble expression of a-helical EmrE, the bacterial b-barrel type nucleoside transporter Tsx and the porcine vasopressin receptor type 2, resulting in several mg of protein per mL of reaction mixture. So far IMPs have almost completely been excluded from solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. I could demonstrate that CF expression enables efficient isotopic labeling of IMPs for NMR analysis and further facilitates selective labeling strategies with combinations of 13C and 15N enriched amino acids that have not been feasible before. Four different G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were successfully CF expressed in preparative scale and for the human endothelin B receptor (ETB), ligand binding ability was observed. A series of truncated ETB derivatives containing nested terminal deletions have been CF produced and functionally characterized. The core area essential for Endothelin-1 binding as well as a central region responsible for ETB oligomer formation was confined to a 39 amino acid fragment including the proposed transmembrane segment 1. The binding constant (KD) of ETB was determined to 6 nM for circular ET-1 by SPR and 29 nM for linear ET-1 by TIRFS. This data indicate a large potential of the established individual CF expression system for functional IMP synthesis.
Characterisation of cytosolic prion protein-mediated putative cytotoxicity in neuronal cell lines
(2006)
Prion diseases are a complex group of fatal neurodegenerative disorders with a broad host spectrum, which are characterised by strong neuronal cell loss, spongiform vacuolation and astrocytic proliferation. The molecular mechanisms of prion-mediated neurodegeneration are not yet fully understood. Recently, it has been proposed that neuronal cell death might be triggered by cytosolic accumulation of misfolded cellular prion protein (PrPC) due to impairment of proteasomal degradation. Cytosolic PrPC could result from either retro-translocation via the endoplasmatic reticulum-associated degradation system (ERAD) or abortive translocation of PrPC into the ER. Indeed, expression of cytosolic PrP (Cy-PrP) was shown to be neurotoxic both in vivo and in vitro. However, contradicting results on cytosolic PrP-mediated neurotoxicity in cultured cells have been reported. Cytosolic PrP–mediated cytotoxicity may play a central role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases. In order to investigate the molecular mechanisms of this process, a detailed analysis of N2a cells conditionally expressing cytosolic PrP (Cy-PrP) was performed in this study. The following results were obtained: First, Cy-PrP expression is not per se sufficient to trigger cytotoxicity in N2a cells independently of proteasome inhibition. Second, Cy-PrP is degraded with kinetics resembling the degradation of cell membrane-anchored full-length PM-PrP. In this process, the 20/26S proteasome was responsible for Cy-PrP degradation while the proteolysis of matured full length PM-PrP is not affected by the proteasomal system. Third, Cy-PrP accumulates in fine foci when expressed at high levels and co-localises with the cytosolic chaperone Hsc70 in EEA-1 positive endocytic vesicles. From these data it was proposed that the chaperone Hsc70 acts as a regulator for the controlled formation of amorphous Cy-PrP aggregates and their transport to endosomal vesicles. This Hsc70-dependent mechanism may confer protection to N2a cells against toxic accumulation of Cy-PrP in the cytosol.
Die Ursache von Adipositas liegt im übermäßigen Wachstum von Fettgewebe, welches hauptsächlich aus Fettzellen, den Adipozyten, besteht. Die Zellen der stroma-vaskulären Fraktion, welche Vorläuferzellen, Makrophagen und Zellen des lokalen Gefäßnetzwerks enthält, sind außerdem an der Homöostase des Fettgewebes beteiligt. Insbesondere spielt das Gefäßsystem des Fettgewebes in Nagetieren eine wichtige Rolle im Fettgewebewachstum, da die Hemmung der Angiogenese in genetisch- und diät-induzierten fettleibigen Mäusen die Entstehung von Adipositas verhindert. Dennoch wurde das Gefäßsystem des menschlichen Fettgewebes bis heute nicht erforscht. Durch immuno-histochemische Analysen am subkutanen menschlichen Fettgewebe konnten wir zwei verschiedene Gefäßsysteme identifizieren: das vaskuläre Netzwerk des Bluts und das lymphatische vaskuläre Netzwerk. Während die Endothelzellen von beiden Gefäßsystemen die gemeinsamen Endothelzellmarker von Willebrand factor (vWf) und CD31 (PECAM, Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule) exprimierten, konnten die Endothelzellen der Blutgefäße an der Expression des Markers CD34 (Stamm/Blutgefäß-Endothel-Zell-Marker) und die Endothelzellen der Lymphgefäße an der Expression der beiden lymphatischen Marker Podoplanin und VEGFR3 (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 3) spezifisch erkannt werden. Ausschließlich für den Marker CD34-positive Zellen und in Rosetten angeordnete CD31-positive Zellen, welche als residente Makrophagen wurden auch charakterisiert. Um die beiden Gefäßsystemen des menschlichen Fettgewebes weiterhin zu erforschen, haben wir ein auf Immunoselektion basiertes Protokoll entwickelt. Es ermöglicht, Blut- (BEC) und lymphatische (LEC) Endothelzellen aber auch Makrophagen und CD34-positive Zellen spezifisch zu isolieren. Sowohl BEC als auch LEC exprimierten VEGFR1, VEGFR2, vWf und Notch4 und nehmen acetyliertes LDL auf. Darüber hinaus konnte in LEC die Expression von Genen, welche spezifisch für das Lymphgefäßsystem sind, wie Podoplanin, Reelin, VEGFR3, Desmoplakin, LYVE-1 nachgewiesen werden. Durch fluss-cytometrischen Analysen des Anzahls von BEC und LEC im Fettgewebe von Patienten mit unterschiedlichen Body Mass Indices (BMI) wurde entdeckt, dass Fettleibigkeit von einer Erweiterung des vaskulären Netzwerks des Bluts im Fettgewebe begleitet wird, jedoch nicht von einer Erweiterung des lymphatischen vaskulären Systems. Flusscytometrische Analysen belegen, dass es in der CD34-positive Stroma-Zellpopulation Zellen gibt, die den endothelialen Progenitor-Zellmarker CD133 und den primitiven Stammzellmarker ABCG2 exprimieren. Außerdem zeigten die CD34-positive Zellen eine signifikant stärkere Proliferation und Expression von Endothelzellmarkern wie CD31 und vWf, wenn dem Kulturmedium zuvor die Faktoren Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGF A) und Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 zugefügt worden waren. Wurden Mäusen mit Hinterbeinischämie CD34-positive Zellen in vivo injiziert, beteiligten sich diese Zellen an der Neovaskularisation des ischämischen Hinterbeins. Eine signifikante Zunahme des Blutflusses im ischämischen Bein, gekoppelt an einer erhöhten Kapillardichte im ischämischen Muskel und einer Integration der menschlichen Zellen in die Vaskulatur der Maus waren erkennbar. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass es unter den CD34-positive Zellen eine Population von endothelialen Progenitorzellen gibt, die -bei geeigneter Stimulation- zu Endothelzellen differenzieren. Parallel dazu wurden die lokalen Faktoren untersucht, die potentiell an der Wachstumskontrolle, der Migration und der Organisation der ruhenden, aus dem Fettgewebe stammenden, BEC und LEC beteiligt waren. Sekrete der Adipozyten, jedoch nicht der CD34-positive Zellen, induzierten eine signifikante BEC- und LEC-Proliferation. Außerdem induzierte die Kombination von Leptin und VEGF A oder des basic Fibroblast Growth Factor eine signifikante Zunahme der BrdU-Inkorporation in BEC während Adiponectin, VEGF C und VEGF D bereits alleine konzentrationsabhängig die Proliferation von LEC induzierten. Leptin, und nicht Adiponectin, führte zu signifikant höherer BEC-Migration und Röhrenformung, während Adiponectin, und nicht Leptin, die LEC-Migration und -Organisation förderte. Dabei führte Leptin in BEC und Adiponectin in LEC zeitabhängig zu einer signifikanten Zunahme der Phosphorylierung der Kinase Akt. Diese Ergebnisse belegen, dass die beiden aus Adipozyten stammenden Adipokine Leptin und Adiponectin eine tragende Rolle in der Umverteilung von BEC bzw. LEC spielen. Im Rahmen der Adipositas steigt die Plasmakonzentration von Leptin an während die Plasmakonzentration von Adiponectin sinkt. Unsere Ergebnisse deuten daraufhin, dass Leptin als lokaler pro-angiogenetischer Faktor identifizieren und Adiponectin als neuer lymphangiogenetischer Faktor im menschlichen Fettgewebe beschreiben konnte. Demnach könnten Veränderungen, in der Adipositas, der Adipokinfreisetzung durch Adipozyten am Umbau des vaskulären Netzwerks des Bluts und am ausbleibenden Wachstum des lymphatischen vaskulären Systems innerhalb des Fettgewebes beteiligt sein. Schließlich belegen die vorliegenden Ergebnisse das Vorhandensein einer Progenitor-Zell-Population in der Stroma-Fraktion des menschlichen Fettgewebes. Diese Progenitor-Zellen sind in der Lage sich an der Neovaskularisation ischämischen Gewebes zu beteiligen. Diese Population könnte im Hinblick auf zelltherapeutische Strategien eine interessante Alternative zu Stammzellen aus dem Knochenmark darstellen.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes, converting arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE, and in a second step 5-HPETE to leukotriene A4. Although the 5-LO promoter possesses characteristics of so called housekeeping genes, such as lack of TATA/CCAAT boxes and existence of several Sp1 binding sites, the 5 -LO gene is tissue specifically expressed in primarily immune competent cells of myeloid origin including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells and B-lymphocytes. 5-LO gene expression in MM6 and HL-60 cells is strongly induced after differentiation of the cells with TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3. In some monocytic cancer cell lines, such as HL-60 TB and U937, TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment are not able to activate 5-LO gene transcription. It was demonstrated, that in these cell lines the 5-LO core promoter is heavily methylated and that only demethylation by the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-aza-2 deoxycytidine (Adc) upregulated the 5-LO mRNA levels. It was also shown that the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA could induce 5-LO mRNA levels, but only in 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta inducible MM6 cells. Interestingly the 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta effect on 5-LO expression is reduced, when combined with TsA. Reporter gene assays revealed that 5-LO promoter activity is strongly induced after 24 h treatment with 330 nM TsA (construct N10 up to 35 fold in HeLa cells). The effect is dependent on the presence of the proximal Sp1 binding site GC4 (-53 bp to –48 bp in relation to the major TIS) in both HeLa and MM6 cells. In vitro binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to this site has been demonstrated in gel shift assays and DNase I footprints. Mutation of the binding site resulted in a loss of basal promoter activity in both 5-LO negative HeLa cells and in 5-LO positive MM6 cells, as well as in the loss of TsA inducibility. The mutational study of different Sp1 binding sites in a larger promoter context revealed the interaction or respectively the additive effect of the multiple Sp1 binding sites of the 5-LO promoter on basal as well as on TsA upregulated promoter activity. However, GC4 seems to be of special relevance for both the basal promoter activity, possibly recruiting the basal transcription machinery, as well as for the TsA induced upregulation of 5-LO promoter activity. TsA does not alter the protein expression levels of Sp1 and Sp3 as investigated in Western blot analysis, neither in HeLa nor in MM6 cells. DNA affinity purification assays revealed that TsA had no effect on the DNA affinity of Sp1 or Sp3. In vitro binding of both Sp1 and Sp3 to the 5-fold GC box, GC4 and GC5 was demonstrated by DAPA analysis, but histone deacetylase inhibition did not change the associated protein amounts. Finally, in vivo binding of Sp1 and Sp3 was investigated in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) in MM6 cells. TsA clearly induced the association of both proteins to the promoter area surrounding the TIS. Upon TsA treatment also RNA polymerase II binding to the area surrounding the TIS (-318 to +52 bp) was increased and even initiated in the more distal promoter parts –1049 to –292 bp, which are negatively regulated in reporter gene assays. Interestingly histone H4 is already highly acetylated without TsA treatment and the acetylation status of H4 remains unchanged after histone deacetylase inhibition, indicating an open chromatin structure of the 5-LO gene in MM6 cells. In a cotransfection study with Sp1 and Sp3, the transactivating potential of factors was investigated and in accordance with the ChIP data, Sp1 and Sp3 increased the promoter activity, but only after TsA treatment. In gel shift assays, the influence of DNA methylation on Sp1 binding was investigated. The results indicate different roles for the three proximal promoter sites. Whereas Sp1 binding to the 5-fold GC box and GC4 is impaired by DNA methylation, binding to GC5 is even increased. A cotransfection study with methylated 5-LO promoter constructs and the murine methyl-CpG binding proteins suggest MBD1 involvement in the regulation of the 5-LO promoter. Since in gel shifts Sp1 binding is inhibited by DNA methylation, at least to the 5-fold GC box and the activating element GC4, and similarly the mutation/deletion of the same sites strongly reduces or inhibits promoter activity, it is likely to assume, that the loss of promoter activity after in vitro methylation is in the first place due to impaired Sp1/Sp3 binding. Together the data underline the importance and complexity of Sp1/Sp3 binding to the GC rich sites in the regulation of 5-LO promoter activity in response to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA as well as in respect to DNA methylation.
Boswellia serrata gum resin extracts (frankincense) have been used for centuries in folk medicine in Asia and Africa. They have shown beneficial therapeutic effects, particularly in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. Clinical studies on humans confirmed an anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer potential of Frankincense preparations. Boswellic acids (BAs) are the major ingredients, responsible for the pharmacological action of the extracts. Molecular and cellular studies with BAs revealed a number of targets including 5-lipoxygenase (LO), topoisomerases and the NF-κB pathway. Since there is little information on the modulation of cellular physiology by BAs, this work was designed to provide a detailed investigation of the cellular and molecular effects of BAs in several cell types related to inflammation. We report that 11-keto-BAs are potent activators of functional responses in human neutrophils, a type of leukocytes mediating acute inflammatory processes. Neutrophil activation by 11-keto-BAs is reflected by enhanced generation of oxygen radicals, release of arachidonic acid (AA) and the subsequent transformation of AA to pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Investigation of the participating signalling pathways identified Ca2+, phosphoinositide-3 kinase, and members of the MAP kinase family (ERKs) as mediators. Second, we present a detailed study of the modulation of human platelet physiology and intracellular signalling events by BAs. Intriguingly, we discovered an inverse structure-activity relationship of BAs regarding platelet activation, with 11-methylene-BAs being superior over 11-keto-BAs. Thus, 11-methylene-BAs stimulated platelet Ca2+ mobilisation, MAP kinase and Akt activation, AA release, 12-LO and cyclooxygenase product formation, and thrombin generation. Novel Ca2+-independent activation pathways of platelet lipid metabolism were discovered. In contrast, 11-keto-BAs were inactive but found to inhibit platelet (p)12-LO directly. Interaction with p12-LO was confirmed in a pulldown assay using immobilised BAs as bait. Finally, BAs were shown to attenuate the activation of monocytes, a cell type responsible for the maintenance of chronic inflammatory states. Impairment of Ca2+ homeostasis is likely conferred by inhibition of Ca2+ influx channels. Taken together, our results shed light on the modulation of intracellular physiology of inflammatory cells by BAs, contributing to a better understanding of the anti-inflammatory effects exerted by frankincense preparations.
Identification and characterization of TNFalpha responsive genes in human breast cancer cells
(2006)
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the escape of the transformed cells from apoptosis. Therefore, the identification of survival genes, allowing cancer cells to circumvent programmed cell death, could provide new diagnostic markers as well as targets for therapeutic intervention. A well known transcription factor regulating the balance between pro- and anti- apoptotic factors is NF-kappaB, which is strongly induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). When cells are stimulated by TNFalpha their response is biphasic with an initial NF-kappaB induction of survival genes which is overridden by the subsequent activation of initiator caspases triggering apoptosis. By combining gene trap mutagenesis with site specific recombination a strategy was developed, which enriches for genes induced by TNFalpha in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. The strategy relies on a one way gene expression switch based on Cre/loxP mediated recombination, which uncouples the expression of a marker gene from the trapped cellular promoter thereby enabling the recovery of genes that are only transiently induced by TNFalpha. The marker gene used in these experiments was a dominant negative variant of the TNFalpha-receptor associated protein FADD (dnFADD), which blocks the apoptotic branch of the TNFalpha induced signaling pathway. Initial experiments indicated that MCF-7 cells expressing high levels of dnFADD were insensitive to TNFalpha induced apoptosis and therefore suitable for the installment of a one way gene expression switch susceptible to Cre/loxP mediated recombination. A MCF-7 reporter clone harboring the recombinase dependent gene expression switch was infected with the gene trap retrovirus U3Cre, which inserts the Cre recombinase gene into a large collection of chromosomal sites. Insertion of Cre downstream of an active cellular promoter induces dnFADD expression from the gene expression switch enabling the cells to block TNFalpha triggered apoptosis. From a gene trap integration library containing approximately 2000000 unique proviral integrations, 69 unique TNFalpha inducible gene trap insertion sites were recovered in a two step selection procedure. Sequencing of the genomic regions adjacent to the insertion sites, which were obtained by inverse PCR (gene trap sequence tags, GTSTs), and data base analysis revealed that 42% of the GTSTs belonged to annotated genes, 13% to known cDNAs with open reading frames, 17% to Genscan predicted genes, 9% to ESTs, 9% to repetitive sequences and 10% to unannotated genomic sequence. Overall, 44% of the annotated genes recovered in this screen were directly or indirectly related to cancer, indicating that the gene trap strategy developed here is suitable for the identification of cancer relevant genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of the trapped and annotated genes in wild type cells revealed that 19 out of 24 genes were either up- or down- regulated by a factor of at least 1.45 by TNFalpha. A large fraction of the gene trap insertions were located upstream, in introns or in opposite orientation to annotated transcripts, indicating that the strategy efficiently recovers non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). While the biological significance of these transcripts still needs to be elucidated, they fall into two main categories. The first category includes gene trap insertions upstream of genes, which could either represent regulatory RNAs interacting with promoter elements or transcripts driven by bidirectional promoters. The second includes inverse orientation gene trap insertions in introns of annotated genes suggesting the presence of natural antisense transcripts (NATs). Interestingly, more than 50% of all antisense integrations are located downstream of transcription start sites predicted by different algorithms supporting the existence of RNAs transcribed from the corresponding genomic regions. Intronic integrations on the coding strand could be derived from cryptic splicing, alternative promoter usage or additional, so far uncharacterized transcripts. Preliminary functional analysis of two genes recovered in this screen encoding the transcription factor ZFP67 and the FLJ14451 protein revealed that FLJ14451 but not ZFP67 inhibited anchorage independent growth in soft agar, suggesting that FLJ14451 might have some tumor suppressor functions. In summary, besides identifying a putative tumor suppressor protein, the present experiments have shown that gene trapping is useful in identifying non-coding transcripts in living cells and may turn out to be the method of choice in characterizing these transcripts whose functions are still largely unknown.
The multidrug resistance like protein 1 (Mdl1p) belongs to the class of ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters which comprise a large family of membrane proteins utilising ATP hydrolysis to drive up-hill transport of a wide variety of solutes across membranes. Mdl1p is a mitochondrial ABC transporter involved in the export of protein fragments derived from the proteolysis of non-assembled inner membrane proteins out of the mitochondrial matrix. Mdl1p forms a homodimeric complex consisting of two polytrophic transmembrane domains (TMDs) and two nucleotide binding domains (NBDs). The transport function and structural organisation of Mdl1p have not been elucidated yet. To characterise the ATP hydrolysis cycle of Mdl1p, the His-tagged NBD (amino acids D423-R695) was over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The isolated NBD was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis. The ATPase activity was non-linear regarding to the protein concentration, indicating that the functional state is a dimer. Dimeric catalytic transition states could be trapped and three different intermediate states were isolated, containing two ATPs, one ATP and one ADP, or two DPs, which are trapped by orthovanadate or beryllium fluoride. These experiments showed that (i) ATP binding to the NBDs induces dimerisation, (ii) in all isolated dimeric states, two nucleotides are present, (iii) phosphate can dissociate from the dimer, (iv) both nucleotides are hydrolysed, and (v) hydrolysis occurs in a sequential mode. Studies in the workgroup systematically screened for over-expression of the full-length Mdl1p and expression conditions were optimised. These studies showed that highest expression was obtained in S. cerevisiae, where the protein was over-expressed 100-fold. In this work over-expressed His-tagged protein was purified via immobilised metal-ion affinity chromatography that was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis with a turn-over of 2.5 ATP per second. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of purified Mdl1p by Edman degradation confirmed experimentally a N-terminal targeting sequence of a mitochondrial ABC transporter of S. cerevisiae for the first time. This sequence was determined to be 59 amino acids in length. Mdl1p was reconstituted into liposomes, which was confirmed by freeze fracture electron microscopy. The reconstituted protein showed ATP hydrolysis similar to the solubilised Mdl1p. However peptide translocation with radiolabelled X(8) or X(23) libraries as done for the transporter associated with antigen processing TAP could not be shown with this setup. Furthermore, structural insights of the mitochondrial transport complex and its oligomeric state were obtained via single particle electron microscopy. It was shown that Mdl1p forms a homodimer in detergent. These in vitro studies provide the basis for further detailed investigation of the mitochondrial ABC transporter Mdl1p.
The present work wishes to contribute with information on two members of the primary active transporter group, which differ both in structure and function: Wilson Disease Protein which uses the energy released by ATP hydrolysis to transport copper across cell membranes, and Proteorhodopsin, which uses the energy of light to build up a proton gradient across the bacterial cell membrane, both heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The surface detection experiments using HA-tagged WNDP confirm the proposed topology of WNDP. The HA-tag per se does not interfere with the function of WNDP, as shown for WNDP HA56 by ATP-dependent phosphorylation after expression in Sf9 cells. Sequence modifications within the WNDP HA56 template-construct reveal some interesting features: i) the N-terminal domain, which contains the 6 metal binding sites, is not necessary for plasma membrane targeting; ii) elevated surface expression of WNDP was observed when the carboxy terminus containing the tri-Leu motif is missing, which suggests that this motif might be involved in the retrieval of the protein from the plasma membrane; iii) the mutations TGE>AAA (proposed to lock the protein in the E1 conformation and lead to constitutive plasma membrane localisation) and D1027A (phosphorylation deficient) did not interfere with the surface localisation of the protein; iv) the mutations CPC>SPS (copper transport deficient) and H1069Q (phosphorylation deficient, most common mutation in Wilson Disease) reduced plasma membrane expression to less then 50%. Western blot analysis shows that the overall expression level of all constructs is similar to that of the reference construct WNDP HA56. These findings suggest that motifs involved in copper binding and catalytic activity do not interfere with plasma membrane targeting of WNDP in Xenopus oocytes. However, the H1069Q mutation could interfere with the distribution of WNDP protein within the cells. In the case of Proteorhodopsin, data presented in this work support earlier observations according to which proteorhodopsin can operate as an outwardly and inwardly directed light-driven ion pump. The residues proposed to play the roles of proton donor (E108) and acceptor (D97) are important for proton translocation. In the absence of an anionic residue at position 97 no outward pumping takes place, but inward charge translocation may occurs under appropriate conditions. An M-like state similar to that known from BR detectably accumulates under neutral pH conditions or under conditions where reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasmic side is slowed down, as in case of the mutants at position 108. Under acidic conditions PR pumps inwardly under the concerted action of pH and transmembrane potential. The experiments performed in parallel with PR and BR wild-types brought not only interesting information about similarities and differences between the two retinylidene ion pumps, but also led to the observation that the life-time of the M state in BR wild-type can be extended in addition to hyperpolarising transmembrane potentials also by extracellular acidic pH, when the proton gradient through the cell membrane is directed opposite to the ion transport (i.e. when the electrochemical gradient opposing the direction of proton transport increases). Direct photocurrent measurements of HA-tagged PR and BR have shown that the inserted tag may interfere with the functionality of the protein. Next to E108 and D97 in PR other residues in the vicinity of the retinal binding pocket contribute to the translocation of protons, as exemplified by the mutant L105Q: additionally to changing the absorption maximum of the protein, this mutant is a less effective proton pump than the wild type. The example of PR suggests that transduction of light energy by – and reaction mechanisms of retinylidene ion pumps have not been entirely deciphered by the extensive studies of bacteriorhodopsin.