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Bladsmutten
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Welcome to Issue 83 of Australasian
Arachnology. I’d like to begin this editorial by
once again noting the steady stream of new
members who are joining the society, and
observing (as always) the exemplary recent
research outputs in the Australasian region. The
Australasian arachnological community continues
to maintain a strong interest in our
remarkable arachnid fauna, and continues to
promote arachnology throughout the region.
This is by no means a straightforward task,
given the negative public perceptions that often
accompany our eight-legged friends, and given
the sometimes challenging research funding
environment for taxonomic and biodiversity
research. Certainly, having watched the society
grow over the last twenty years, and having
seen perceptions of the Australasian fauna
change during that time, it is both reassuring
and exciting to look ahead. With unparalleled
population growth throughout the region and
the world, and unprecedented pressures on our
natural landscapes, habitats and remaining
natural biomes, it is critical that arachnids (and
indeed all invertebrates) continue to receive the
growing recognition they deserve among
ecologists, conservation biologists, legislators
and the public at large. The 10th Invertebrate
Biodiversity and Conservation Conference in
Melbourne in December 2011 confirmed just
how active research in this field is, and there is
no doubt that Australasian arachnids will
continue to be the focus of much positive
attention over the next few years.
Welcome to Issue 84 of Australasian Arachnology. I’d like to begin this editorial by first making special mention of the late Doug Wallace OAM (1923-2012), who passed away in June this year. Doug was a founding member of the Australasian Arachnological Society, and would be further known to many as the founder and President of the long-running Rockhampton Arachnological Society. Robert Raven and I have written a small notice re. Doug’s passing in the General Announcements section (below), and Robert will contribute a full obituary for Doug in the following issue of the newsletter. Vale Doug – you will be sorely missed.
Welcome to Issue 82 of Australasian
Arachnology. The last six months have been
extremely productive for the Australasian
Arachnological Society, with nine new
members and numerous new papers being
published by existing AAS members. It is
wonderful to see such a dynamic and growing
membership, and to witness the continuing
fascination elicited by our remarkable arachnid
fauna. Indeed, since the beginning of 2011, over
50 new species of arachnids have been
described from Australasia, including pseudoscorpions
and numerous spiders in the families
Selenopidae, Archaeidae, Amaurobiidae, Tetragnathidae
and Araneidae. The sheer diversity
of undescribed arachnid species in Australasia
has always posed a challenge to systematists
and ecologists, but major attempts are being
made to document the fauna. Take, for example,
Pinkfloydia, a new genus of Tetragnathidae
recently described from Western
Australia!
Die zellfreie Proteinsynthese hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem potenten Werkzeug – auch in der Produktion von Membranproteinen – entwickelt. Da keine lebenden Zellen genutzt werden, kann der Prozess der präparativen Membranproteinproduktion vereinfacht und individuell optimiert werden. Im Gegensatz zu konventionellen zellbasierten Expressionssystemen gewährleistet die zellfreie Proteinsynthese die direkte Zugänglichkeit zum Reaktionsort und damit die Möglichkeit der unmittelbaren Kontrolle. Dies ermöglicht eine genaue Anpassung der Reaktionsbedingungen auf das Zielprotein. Die Verbesserung und Entwicklung neuer Modi der zellfreien Membranproteinsynthese war ein Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit. Setzt man dem Zellfrei-System von Außen keine hydrophobe Umgebung zu, so präzipitiert das neu-synthetisierte Membranprotein im Reaktionsmix (P-CF). Interessanter Weise unterscheiden sich diese Präzipitate von den aus der E.coli zellbasierten Proteinproduktion bekannten Einschlußkörperchen, da sie sich teilweise leicht in mildem Detergenz resolubilisieren lassen. Zudem konnte für verschiedene Transportproteine, die aus Präzpitat resolubilisiert und danach in Liposomen rekonstituiert wurden, spezifische Transportaktivität gezeigt werden (z.B. eukaryotische Ionentransporter, Multi-Drug Resistenzproteine von E.coli). Alternativ können die Membranproteine direkt, durch die Zugabe von Detergenzien in den Reaktionsmix, solubilisiert werden (D-CF). Um die einzelnen Expressionsmodi zu optimieren wurden 24 gebräuchliche Detergenzien auf ihre Eigenschaft hin gestestet, strukturell sehr unterschiedliche Membranproteine zu solubilisieren. Die Familie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether hat sich dabei als sehr geeignet erwiesen um das prokaryotische α-helikale Multi-Drug Resistenzprotein EmrE, den bakteriellen vornehmlich aus ß-sheets bestehenden Transporter Tsx und den eukaryotischen G-Protein gekoppelten Vasopressin Rezeptor V2R direkt im D-CF Modus zu solubilisieren. Zudem konnte eine Abhängigkeit der spezifischen Aktivität von Tsx vom verwendeten Expressionsmodus bzw. des verwendeten Detergenz mit Hilfe der Black Lipid Membrane´ Methode gezeigt werden. Die Expression eines repäsentativen Teils von 134 Zielproteinen des inneren Membranproteoms von E.coli wurde in drei verschiedenen Zellfrei-Expressionsmodi getestet. Ein an jedes Zielprotein des Membranroteoms C-terminal fusioniertes GFP diente der Konzentrationsbestimmung im D-CF Expressionsmodus. Die Faltung von GFP ist in Anwesenheit von Detergenz signifikant reduziert. Zunächst wurden alle Zielproteine in einem batch´ System im D-CF Modus im Mikrotiterplatten Maßstab mit Hilfe eines Roboters hergestellt. Die Etablierung einer robotergestützten Plattform, welche das Pipettieren, Inkubieren und Detektieren kombiniert, diente als Grundlage für den Herstellungsprozess des Membranroteoms von E.coli in einem Medium-Durchsatz Verfahren in batch´ Konfiguration. In dieser ersten Stufe des Screens im D-CF Modus konnten 84 Zielproteine (63%) aufgrund der detektierten GFP-Fluoreszens in Mengen von 1 bis 60μg pro mL Reaktion als erfolgreich produziert identifiziert werden. Zudem wurde das Membranproteom in dem effektiveren continous exchange (CE) Verfahren im P-CF, wie auch im D-CF Modus wiederholt exprimiert. Im Vergleich zur batch´ Konfiguration konnten im CE D-CF Modus deutlich mehr Zielproteine (75%) als positiv identifiziert werden. 16 Zielproteine wurden dabei bereits in Expressionsmengen von mehr als 100μg solubilisierte Membranproteinfusion pro mL Reaktionsmix gewonnen. 99 Zielproteine (74%) konnten als positiv identifiziert werden, nachdem die unlösliche Fraktion der CE P-CF Reaktion elektrophoretisch getrennt und angefärbt wurde. Für 66 Kandidaten (49%) stellt das produzierte Protein nach Coomassie-Färbung eine dominante Bande, und damit (semi-)präparative Proteinmengen, dar. Der Erhalt von Detergenz-solubilisierten Membranproteinproben von hoher Qualität ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Gewinnung struktureller sowie biochemischer Daten. Das E.coli α-helikale Multi- Drug Resistenz Protein SugE konnte im CE P-CF Verfahren in präparativen Mengen von mehr als 2mg Protein pro mL des Reaktionsansatzes gewonnen werden. Durchgeführte analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte, dass der Transporter unter optimierten Reaktionsbedingungen in einem homogenen, schlanken Peak eluiert. Mittels elektronenmikroskopischer Gefrierbruchanalysen konnte eine effiziente und homogene Rekonstitution von SugE in E.coli Liposomen gezeigt werden. Bindungsstudien unter der Verwendung fluoreszensbasierter Anisotropie-Messungen haben gezeigt dass Proflavin – im Gegenteil zu Ethidium – ein Substrat von SugE ist. YedZ ist ein 24kDa leucinreiches Membranprotein mit sechs putativen Transmembransegmenten und enthält zwei Kofaktoren, ein Häm b und ein Flavin-mononukleotid (FMN). Im P-CF Modus exprimiertes YedZ kann effizient in den Detergenzien LMPG, LPPG, SDS und DPC resolubilisiert werden. Analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte einen symmetrischen Elutionspeak der apo-Form. Mittels CD-Spektroskopie des gereinigten apo-YedZ in 0.02% DDM wurde ein α-helikaler Sekundärstrukturanteil von 55% ermittelt. Zur Gewinnung von holo-YedZ wurde anstatt Hämb das chemisch verwandte Hemin eingesetzt. Die aufgenommenen UV/Vis Spektren der zellfrei produzierten holo-YedZ Proteinprobe in ihrer oxydierten und reduzierten Form, zeigen zu einer in vivo exprimierten Vergleichsprobe identische Absorptionsmaxima. Für sechs G-Protein gekoppelten Rezeptoren konnte die zellfreie Expression in präparativen Mengen gezeigt werden. Das Steroid-Derivat Digitonin, sowie einzelne Mitglieder der Detergenzfamilie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether, wurden als am geeignetsten für die lösliche Expression der GPCRs im CE D-CF Verfahren ermittelt. Löslich in Anwesenheit von Brij78 produzierter GPCR Proben, zeigten nach Negativfärbung in elektronenmikroskopischen Einzelpartikelanalysen eine homogene Probenpräparation und geben Hinweis auf eine strukturelle Dimerisierug der Rezeptoren. Detergenzsolubilisierte Rezeptoren konnten in Liposomen, basierend auf E.coli Lipid-Mischungen, rekonstituiert werden. Elektronen-mikroskopische Gefrierbruchanalysen zeigten eine homogene Rekonstitution, welche auf eine funktionelle Faltung der Rezeptoren schließen lässt.
The Opisthobranchia comprise highly specialized marine gastropods and have therefore been subject to diverse investigations covering various biological disciplines. However, a robust phylogeny of these gastropods is still lacking and several subclades have only been rarely studied. Furthermore, crucial aspects for the evolution of Opisthobranchia have not been comparatively analysed. Therefore, the aim of the present thesis is to gain new insights into the phylogeny of the Opisthobranchia with special focus on certain critical groups (Pleurobranchomorpha, Acteonoidea) and to assess several crucial features of the evolution of the investigated clades. The combination of four different gene markers (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, 16S rDNA and CO1) and modern molecular systematic analysis tools were used to construct phylogenetic hypotheses focussing on Opisthobranchia as a whole as well as Pleurobranchomorpha and Acteonoidea in more detail. Intriguing new aspects of phylogeny and evolution of Opisthobranchia were revealed. First of all, monophyly of Opisthobranchia is definitely rejected based on the present data, while monophyly of Euthyneura (comprising Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata) is supported. Monophyly of opisthobranch subclades is confirmed for Nudipleura (as well as its constituting groups Nudibranchia and Pleurobranchomorpha), Umbraculida, Pteropoda (as well as subclades Thecosomata and Gymnosomata) and Acochlidiacea, for Cephalaspidea (if Runcinacea is regarded as a separate clade) and for Sacoglossa (if Cylindrobulla is accepted as an Oxynoacea). Aplysiomorpha are rendered paraphyletic due to the position of Akera bullata, but this result needs further investigation and should be considered with caution. The Nudipleura are found as the first single offshoot of the Euthyneura implying an early evolutionary separation of the last common ancestor of this clade. The remaining taxa form two main clades, one comprising the opisthobranch subgroups Umbraculida, Cephalaspidea, Aplysiomorpha and Pteropoda, while the other contains the pulmonate taxa and the opisthobranch Sacoglossa and Acochlidiacea. The interrelationships within these clades remain largely unresolved due to low statistical support values. However, a possible sister group relationship of Acochlidiacea and Eupulmonata receives statistical support. Opisthobranchia display various highly specific adaptations to diverse food sources. However, evolution of these specialized traits has never been assessed at an analytical level. The current thesis reconstructs the evolution of dietary preferences with novel methodologies based on the newly proposed phylogenetic hypothesis. Reconstruction of dietary evolution revealed herbivory as the ancestral condition in Euthyneura implying that carnivory evolved at least five times independently in the diverse lineages. The first comprehensive molecular phylogenetic hypothesis of the Pleurobranchomorpha could not reveal monophyly of the two main subclades Pleurobranchaeidae and Pleurobranchidae. This is due to the position of a single taxon (Euselenops luniceps) which is assigned to the Pleurobranchaeidae based on morphology but clusters within Pleurobranchidae in the current hypothesis. Furthermore, the tribe Berthellini and the genus Berthella are rendered paraphyletic by the current analyses. The results of molecular systematic analyses were used to reconstruct historical biogeography of Pleurobranchomorpha. Four different methodological approaches were applied yielding ambiguous results for Pleurobranchomorpha. However, the Pleurobranchidae comprising about 80% of the extant Pleurobranchomorpha most probably derived from an Antarctic origin. Dating of the phylogenetic tree via molecular clock methods yielded divergence of Pleurobranchidae into the Antarctic Tomthompsonia antarctica and the remaining species in Early Oligocene. Afterwards the latter underwent rapid radiation during Oligocene and Early Miocene. This divergence event coincides with two major geological events in the Antarctic region. On the one hand, the onset of glaciation and on the other hand the opening of the Drake Passage with concurrent formation of an Antarctic circumpolar current (ACC). I suppose that these sudden and dramatic changes in climate and palaeogeography probably accounted for migration of the last common ancestor of Pleurobranchidae (besides Tomthompsonia) into warmer regions via the Drake Passage to the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific and via the South Tasman Rise to the Indo-West Pacific. Furthermore, the ACC may have triggered larval dispersal to the Eastern Atlantic. The phylogenetic position of Acteonoidea has been a matter of debate for decades and they have long been considered as basal opisthobranchs. Results of the present thesis rather support placement in “Lower Heterobranchia” as sister group of Rissoelloidea. The current division of Acteonoidea into three families has never been investigated by means of phylogenetic methods. Thus, this thesis provides the first comprehensive investigation of this clade challenging present division into three families. The results rather support division into two main clades with the monogeneric Bullinidae clustering within Aplustridae doubting its separate status. Additionally, Rictaxis punctocaelatus which has been assigned to Acteonidae clusters basal to Aplustridae rendering Acteonidae paraphyletic. Since information on morphology of R. punctocaelatus was lacking until now, I conducted the first detailed investigation on morphology and histology of this species in order to reassess the unexpected molecular systematic placement. Character tracing analyses revealed similarities with both acteonoidean families implying an intermediate position of this species which might be assigned to a separate family in the future. Furthermore, the common features of Acteonidae and Rictaxis (massive shell, small foot, anterior mantle cavity opening, and absence of oral gland) are possibly plesiomorphic for the whole Acteonoidea. In summary, the results of the present thesis provide valuable novel insights into the phylogeny and evolution of the Opisthobranchia by employing state-of-the-art approaches of molecular systematics and evolutionary reconstruction. Thus, diverse hypotheses on opisthobranch phylogeny and evolution were either supported or rejected as well as novel hypotheses proposed which offer the basis for further research on these extraordinary gastropods.
Recently, the first part of the morphological revision of the Southeast Asian water monitor lizards of the Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) species group provided a taxonomic overview over the members of this successful and widespread species complex (Koch et al. 2007). There, the Philippine taxa marmoratus, nuchalis and cumingi were reelevated to species status due to diagnostic morphological characteristics, e.g. significantly enlarged scales on the neck region. In this second part of the ongoing revision, these three species are re-investigated using additional voucher specimens and advanced statistical techniques including canonical variates analysis and principal component analysis. Our new investigations indicate that V. marmoratus represents a composite species, comprising at least three distinct taxa. Hence, the populations of the Sulu Archipelago (Tawi-Tawi Island) and those of the Palawan region are described as new species, viz. Varanus rasmusseni sp. nov. and V. palawanensis sp. nov., respectively. The allopatric island populations of V. cumingi inhabiting Samar, Leyte, and Bohol (the East Visayan subregion) show characteristic and geographically correlated colour patterns distinct from the type locality Mindanao (the second subregion of Greater Mindanao), warranting subspecific partition of this species. The new subspecies is named V. cumingi samarensis ssp. nov. In contrast, the taxonomic status of V. nuchalis remained unchanged, although this species shows some considerable variation in colour pattern. The systematic chapters are supplemented with notes about biology and conservation status. The hitherto underestimated diversity and zoogeography of Philippine water monitors is discussed in the light of Pleistocene sea level fluctuations. Finally, we introduce a scenario for the evolution and spread of Southeast Asian water monitor lizards and provide an identification key for the Philippine members of the V. salvatoI' complex.