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Vascular occlusive diseases are one of the leading mortality causes in westernised countries. Occlusions of one of the major arteries can be overcome without devastating consequences provided a timely induction of compensating collateral arteries occurs. Perhaps the most outstanding feature of collateral vessel growth is the proliferation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Understanding the molecular mechanisms and identifying key molecular players of SMC proliferation would contribute significantly to the development of efficient therapies to intervene with all processes involving neointima formation, including collateral growth. mRNA and protein coding for co-transcription factor Egr1 were found to be up-regulated in growing collateral vessels 6, 12 or 24 hours following femoral artery ligation in mice. Since Egr1 is required for SMC proliferation in vitro and in vivo and likely to be implicated in the initiation of collateral artery growth, the key signalling mediators regulating Egr1 expression specifically in proliferating vascular SMCs were investigated. Northern blot and Western blot analysis revealed a strong up-regulation of Egr1 within 2 hours of stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2. These two potent SMC mitogens involved in neointima formation were used to stimulate vascular SMCs not only to delineate the regulators of Egr1 expression but also to identify additional key mediators of SMC proliferation. FGF-2 but not PDGF-AB led to a drastic reduction of desmin amount in proliferating SMCs, correlating closely with the phenotypic modulation of SMCs in vivo. Both growth factors triggered a dramatic increase in DNA-synthesis rate with a concomitant loss of p27 exp Kip1. Stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2 triggered a rapid and transient activation of PDGFRβ and FGFR1 respectively, thus providing the basis for activation of down-stream targets. Analysis of an array of signalling pathways demonstrated a strong activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK cascade in response to both factors as measured by the level of phosphorylation of prominent members MEK, ERK1/2 and c-Myc. SAPK/JNK and p38, which also belong to the superfamily of MAP kinases, did not become activated following stimulation with either PDGF-AB or FGF-2. The analysis of various PKC isoforms identified PKCδ and PKCθ to be the key mediators of PDGF-AB- and FGF-2-induced mitogenesis in proliferating SMCs. Whereas PDGF-AB potently stimulated PKB/Akt with concomitant GSK3β phosphorylation, FGF-2-induced inactivation of GSK3β was independent of PKB/Akt. Specific inhibition in order to evaluate the contribution of individual pathways to Egr1 expression and vascular SMC proliferation revealed that inhibition of the Raf-MEK-ERK module by UO126 completely abolished DNA-synthesis and Egr1 expression without a compensation by alternative pathways. Surprisingly, inhibition of PI3K led to a switch to the mitogenic RafMEK-ERK signalling cascade which resulted in an augmented Egr1 expression. In conclusion, in porcine vascular SMCs, activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signalling module appears to be the main prerequisite for Egr1 expression and DNA synthesis induction in response to PDGF-AB and FGF-2 whereas related kinases SAPK/JNK and p38 play no significant role. Inhibition of the PI3K-Akt cascade represents an alternative way to activate ERK1/2 and induce Egr1 expression. Whereas MEK is the central regulator of mitogenic effects in proliferating vascular SMCs, the PI3K-Akt pathway most likely exerts survival function. Inactivation of MEK by its specific inhibitors identified hyperphosphorylation as ayet unknown mechanism of kinase inhibition.
The objective of this study is the avifauna of the North American Green River Formation. Five new Green River bird species as well as several new specimens of already known species are described. * Galliformes: Gallinuloides wyomingensis EASTMAN 1900 A second specimen of the galliform Gallinuloides wyomingensis could be identified. Gallinuloides wyomingensis resembles closely Paraortygoides MAYR 1999, which is known from Messel and the London Clay. The new specimen exhibits characters such as a cup-like cotyla scapularis of the coracoid that clearly indicate that Gallinuloides is a stem-group representative of galliforms. * Eurypygidae: Eoeurypyga olsoni gen. et sp. nov. Eoeurypyga is the only fossil representative of the Eurypygidae. Eoeurypyga and the modern sunbittern Eurypyga helias share the typical long bill, the caudally situated neck and the elongated vertebrae cervicales. Additional synapomorph characters were found. The new species indicates a North American origin for the Eurypygidae. * Messelornithidae: Messelornis nearctica HESSE 1992 The original description of Messelornis nearctica was based on a single specimen. Ten new specimens, described in this study, reveal additional information. Messelornis nearctica shows the same large intraspecific size range as Messelornis cristata HESSE 1988 from Messel, the type species of the genus. * Apodidae: Wyomingcypselus pohli gen. nov. sp. nov. Wyomingcypselus pohli is the first described fossil apodiform bird for North American. Due to characters of the wing, especially the position of the processus musculi extensor metacarpi radialis, Wyomingcypselus is referrred to the Apodidae. * Trogoniformes: unnamed species The Green River birds include a poorly preserved, but apparently heterodactyl specimen, which also resembles trogons in overall appearance. * Primobucconidae: Primobucco mcgrewi BRODKORB 1970 Originally, Primobucco mcgrewi was only known from a partial skeleton consisting of the right wing. Three new specimens could be referred to the species. Primobucco mcgrewi clearly exhibits an anisodactyl foot, which makes the assignment to the zygodactyl Bucconidae highly doubtful. Instead, Primobucco mcgrewi is referrred to the Coraciiformes s.s. Thus, Primobucconidae are the first New World representatives of stem-group Coraciiformes. * ?Leptosomidae: Plesiocathartes wyomingensis sp. nov. and Plesiocathartes major sp. nov. Plesiocathartes wyomingensis and Plesiocathartes major represent the first North American record for the genus. Both species exhibit the diagnostic characters for the Leptosomidae as listed by MAYR (2002a, b). * Primoscenidae: Eozygodactylus americanus gen. et sp. nov. and unnamed species Eozygodactylus americanus is the first North American member of this taxon. Both Eozygodactylus americanus and the unnamed species show the zygodactyl foot and the large processus intermetacarpalis of the carpometacarpus, which are typical for Primoscendiae. Due to differences mainly of the humerus, it was placed in a new genus. Besides the descriptionof new species, the avifauna of the Green River Formatin was studied and compared with the avifauna of Messel. The formations show a high concordance, more than 60 % of the Green River taxa also occur in Messel. Such a high concordance is also found for mammals. This is due to the existence of two landbridges, the Thule landbridge and the de Geer landbridge, between Europe and North America during the early Eocene.
The heat stress (hs) response is universal to all organisms. As the cell senses increase in temperature, heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are activated to upregulate the expression of a number of genes encoding heat stress proteins (Hsp) which act as molecular chaperones to protect cells against heat damages. In higher plants, the phenomenon seems to be unusually complex both at the level of Hsfs and Hsps (e.g., 21 Hsf encoding genes in Arabidopsis and at least 17 in tomato). Upon prolonged hs, another characteristic property of plant cells is the assembly of large cytosolic aggregates called heat stress granules (HSG), which are composed of Hsps, HsfA2, RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The present work was aimed to understand plant hs response using tomato as a model system. To study the function of tomato Hsfs in their native system, we generated transgenic tomato lines altered in expression of HsfA1, HsfA2, and HsfB1. Tomato plants with 10-fold overexpression of HsfA1 (OE plants) were characterised by integration of a single HsfA1 expression cassette, whereas the plants harbouring a tandem inverted repeat (IR) of the cassette showed cosuppression of HsfA1 (CS plants). The lack of HsfA1 expression in CS plants results from posttranscriptional gene silencing connected with the formation of small interfering RNA (siRNA). Under normal growth conditions, major developmental features were similar for wild-type (WT), OE and CS plants. However, in contrast to the former two, CS plants and fruits were extremely sensitive to elevated temperature because hs-induced synthesis of major chaperones and Hsfs was strongly reduced or lacking. Despite the complexity of the plant Hsf family, the function of tomato HsfA1 is unique as master regulator of induced thermotolerance. On the other hand, maintenance of essential chaperones in CS plants during seed development suggests involvement of other Hsfs and/or transcription factor(s). HsfB1 and HsfA2 transgenic tomato plants, unaffected in thermotolerance, further supported the function of HsfA1 as the major factor regulating hs-inducible genes. Hs87 independent phenotypes of plants with altered expression of HsfB1 indicates developmental role of this Hsf. Using transient reporter assays with mesophyll protoplasts from WT tomato, we demonstrated that plasmids encoding Hsfs A1, A2 and A3 were well expressed which could function as activators for reporter gene expression. However, in protoplasts derived from CS plants, plasmids encoding HsfA2 and HsfA3 were normally expressed but even higher amounts of HsfA1 expression plasmids were completely silenced. Therefore, silencing of HsfA1 in CS plants was also reproduced in its mesophyll protoplasts. Lacking thermotolerance in CS protoplasts could be restored after transformation with expression plasmids encoding functionally equivalent HsfA2 or HsfA3 resulting in (i) expression of chaperones, (ii) survival of the cells at otherwise lethal temperature, (iii) thermoprotection of firefly luciferase, and (iv) assembly of heat stress granules (HSGs). The strong silencing caused by an IR in CS plants opened the possibility of a broad use of RNAi for gene knock-down also in the transient system of mesophyll protoplasts. Using this technology, we attempted to dissect essential components of thermotolerance and HSG assembly. We demonstrated the previously reported function of chaperones such as Hsp70 and Hsp101, and could discriminate the in vivo chaperone functions of different isoforms of Hsp20 and Hsp70 proteins. Hsp17-CI, Hsp70 (hs-inducible isoforms), and Hsp101 are absolutely essential chaperones for thermotolerance in plants. Furthermore, the results also show that despite Hsp17-CI and -CII being major components of HSG complexes, they are dispensable for assembly of these complexes. Based on these results, it is proposed that in the transient protoplast system an approach with gene-specific IRs can be used to discriminate functions of closely related isoforms among protein-families and to dissect complex protein networks.