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The Na+/proline transporter of E. Coli (PutP) is responsible for the uptake of proline which is subsequently used not only as a carbon and nitrogen source and a constituent of proteins but also as a particularly effective osmoprotectant. However, for a long time there was little known about the single steps in the reaction cycle of this transporter and only few details about its structure-function relationship are available. Aim of the present work was to achieve a deeper understanding about the kinetic properties of the Na+/proline transporter and to get insights into the structure-function relationship of the substrate binding. To answer these questions different techniques were used. By using the novel SSM technique combining the preparation of PutP proteoliposomes it was possible to demonstrate for the first time the electrogenic substrate binding to PutP transporter. Due to rapid solution exchange measurements on the SSM it was additionally possible to obtain time resolved information about the kinetic details of the cytoplasmic substrate binding sites which were not available by previous steady state and equilibrium binding measurements. Pre-steady-state charge translocation was observed after rapid addition of one or both of the cosubstrates Na+ and/or proline to the PutP-WT proteoliposomes adsorbed on the SSM. Thereby it was possible to link the observed electrical signals with the binding activity of PutP. The observed Na+ and/or proline induced charge displacement were assigned to an electrogenic Na+ and/or proline binding process at the cytoplasmic face of the enzyme with a rate constant of k > 50 s-1 proceeding the rate limiting step of the reaction cycle. Furthermore, based on the kinetic analysis of the electrical signals obtained from the measurements of PutP on SSM, the following characteristics of the substrates binding in PutP were deduced: (1) both Na+ and proline can bind individually to the transporter. Under physiological conditions, an ordered binding mechanism prevails; while at sufficiently high concentrations, each substrate can bind in the absence of the other; (2) substrate binding is electrogenic not only for Na+, but also for the uncharged cosubstrate proline. The charge displacement associated with Na+ binding and proline binding is of comparable size and independent of the presence of the respective cosubstrate. In addition, it was concluded that Na+ accesses its binding site through a high-field access channel resulting in a charge translocation, whereas the binding of the electroneutral proline induces a conformation alteration involving the displacement of charged amino acid residue(s) of the protein; (3) Na+ and proline binding sites interact cooperatively with each other by increasing the affinity and/or the speed of binding of the respective cosubstrate; (4) proline binding proceeds in a two step process: low affinity (~ 0.9 mM) electroneutral substrate binding followed by a nearly irreversible electrogenic conformational transition; (5) membrane impermeable PCMBS inhibits both Na+ and proline binding to the inside-out orientated PutP transporter, indicating that rather than selectively blocking a specific binding site, PCMBS probably locks the enzyme in an inactive state. The possible targets for this SH-reagent are cysteines 281 and 344 located close to the cytoplasmic surface of the protein. Beyond it, transient electrical currents of PutP were also observed on the BLM after rapid addition of proline in the presence of Na+. This was possible by combining the conventional BLM technique with high-speed flash-photolysis of caged-proline. Indeed the signals on the BLM indicate the detection of a different underlying reaction process in comparison to the data achieved by the SSM technique. This has paved the way for supplemental information about the reaction cycle since it was possible to assign the flash-photolysis BLM signals to the proline binding step followed by the internalization of Na+ and proline into the liposome. Thereby it was found, that the presence of Na+ is indispensable and the time constant for the process is ~ 63 ms. Moreover, structure-function information about the Na+ and proline binding sites of PutP was obtained by investigating the functionally important amino acid residues Asp55, Gly63 and Asp187 with site-directed mutagenesis and the combined SSM technique. One finding is that the mutated proteins PutP-D55C and PutP-G63C showed no activity on the SSM. Therefore, it can be assumed that either both Asp55 and Gly63 are crucial for the structure of PutP protein, or they are located at or close to the Na+ and proline binding sites. Furthermore, the results obtained from PutP-D187N and PutP-D187C mutants on SSM suggest that Asp187 of PutP is likely to be involved in the Na+ binding at the cytoplasmic side of the backward running carrier. Taken together the results of the present work have substantially broadened the known picture of the Na+/proline transporter PutP thereby several steps of the reaction cycle were elucidated, and moreover, valuable insights into the structure-function relationship of the transporter have become available.
The technique of site-specific fluorescence labelling with Tetramethylrhodaminemaleimide (TMRM) in combination with two electrode voltage-clamp technique (TEVC), an approach that has been named voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF), has been used in this work to study the Na,K-ATPase. The TMRM dye has the ability to attach covalently to cysteine residues and it responds to changes in the hydrophobicity of its local environment. We exploited this property using a construct of the Na-pump in which the native, extracellularly accessible cysteines were removed and cysteine residues were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis in specific positions of the Na-pump. In this way it was possible to detect site-specific conformational rearrangements of the Na-pump in a time-resolved fashion within a native membrane environment. In particular this technique allows to resolve reactions with low electrogenicity that cannot be satisfactorily analyzed with purely electrophysiological techniques and to identify the conformations of the enzyme under specific ionic composition of the measuring buffers. We used VCF to study the influence that several cations like Na+, K+, NMG+, TEA+ and BTEA+ exert on the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase between several enzymatic intermediates and on some of the reactions related to cation transport. To this end we utilized the mutants N790C in the loop M5-M6 and the mutant E307C, T309C, L311C and E312C in the loop M3-M4. From the correspondence of the fluorescence changes with the activation and inhibition of pumping current, by K+ and ouabain respectively, and from the fact that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions the voltage distribution of charge movement and fluorescence changes evoked by voltage jumps are in reasonable agreement we conclude that through the fluorescence signals measured from these mutants, we can indeed monitor conformational changes linked to transport activity of the enzyme. For the mutants N790 and L311, it was found that the Na+ dependence of the amplitude and kinetics of the fluorescence signal associated with the E1P-E2P transition is in agreement with the prediction of an access channel model describing the regulation of the access of extracellular Na+ to its binding site. In particular for the mutants E307 and T309 it was found that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions, the conformational change tracked by the fluorescence was much slower than the charge relaxation at hyperpolarized potentials while the kinetics was very similar at depolarized potentials. This implies that at hyperpolarized potentials the conformational change connected to the E1P-E2P transition does not give a large contribution to the electrogenicity of the process which is also consistent with the access channel model. On the mutant N790C it was found that the external pH does not seem to have any effect on the E1P-E2P equilibrium even if it seems to modulate the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. Fluorescence quenching experiments with iodide and D2O indicate that at hyperpolarized potentials the local environment of the mutant N790C, experiences a small change in the accessibility to water without major changes in the local electrostatic field ...
Ubiquitylation is a three-step process, which results in the attachment of the small protein ubiquitin (Ub) to lysine residues on a substrate protein. SUMO proteins are ubiquitin (Ub)-related modifiers implicated in the regulation of gene transcription, cell cycle, DNA repair and protein localization. The molecular mechanisms by which the sumoylation of target proteins regulates diverse cellular functions remain poorly understood. During my PhD I isolated and characterized SUMO1 and SUMO2 binding motifs. Using Yeast Two Hybrid system, bioinformatics and NMR spectroscopy we defined a common SUMO-interacting motif (SIM) and map its binding surfaces on SUMO1 and SUMO2. This motif forms a β-strand that could bind in parallel or anti-parallel orientation to the β2-strand of SUMO due to the environment of the hydrophobic core. A negative charge imposed by a stretch of neighboring acidic amino acids and/or phosphorylated serine residues determines its specificity in binding to distinct SUMO paralogues and can modulate the spatial orientation of SUMO-SIM interactions. Mutation of the SUMO interacting motif of TTRAP (TRAFS and TNF receptor associated protein) influences both its localization and dynamic behaviour in living cells. Ubiquitin (Ub)-binding domains (UBDs) are key elements in conveying Ub-based cellular signals. UBD-containing proteins interact with ubiquitylated targets and control numerous biological processes including receptor trafficking, DNA repair, virus budding and gene transcription. They themselves undergo UBD-dependent monoubiquitylation, which promotes intramolecular binding of the UBD to the attached Ub and consequently leads to their functional inhibition. During the second part of my PhD I could show that, in contrast to the established ubiquitylation pathway, the presence of UBDs allows the monoubiquitylation of host protein independently of classical E3 ligases. UBDs of different types including UBA, UIM, UBM, NFZ and UBZ, can directly cooperate with E2 Ub-conjugating enzymes to promote monoubiquitylation of their host proteins. Using FRET technology I verified that the E2 enzyme and the substrate directly interact in cells. Moreover, UBD-containing proteins Stam2 and Sts2 promote self-ubiquitylation and not ubiquitylation of other targets or form polyUb chains from free Ub. Our study revealed a yet unappreciated role of E2 enzymes in ubiquitylation reactions of UBD containing proteins.
Active neurogenesis continuously takes place in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian brain. The dentate gyrus of the adult rodent hippocampus contains an astrocytelike cell population that is regarded as residual radial glia. These cells reside with their cell bodies in the subgranular layer (SGL). Radial processes traverse the granule cell layer (GCL) and form bushy ramifications in the inner molecular layer (IML). The residual radial glial cells apparently represent neuronal progenitor cells that can give rise to functionally integrated granule cells. To date the cellular and molecular events driving a subpopulation of these cells into neurogenesis as well as the cellular transition states are poorly understood. The present study shows, that in the mouse dentate gyrus, this cell type selectively expresses surfacelocated ATPhydrolyzing activity and is immunopositive for nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2). NTPDase2 is an ectoenzyme and hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates such as ATP or UTP to their respective nucleoside diphosphates. The enzyme becomes expressed in the hippocampus during late embryogenesis from E17 onwards, and is thus not involved in early brain development. Its embryonicpattern of expression mirrors dentate migration of neuroblasts and the formation of the primary and finally the tertiary dentate matrix. NTPDase2 is also expressed by a transient population of cortical radial glia from late embryonic development until postnatal day 5. NTPDase2 can be employed as a novel markerfor defining cellular transition states along the neurogenic pathway. It is associated with subpopulations of GFAP and nestinpositive cells. These intermediate filaments are typically expressed by the progenitor cells of the dentate gyrus. In addition there is a considerable overlap with doublecortinand PSANCAM positive cells. The expression of the microtubuleassociated protein doublecortin and of PSANCAM which are expressed by migrating neuroblasts is indicative of a transition of progenitors to a neural phenotype or an immature form of granule cell. NTPDase2 is no longer associated with young neurons and with maturegranule cells, as indicated by the lack of doubleimmunostaining for III tubulin and NeuN, respectively. Furthermore, β S100positive astrocytes do not express NTPDase2 validating that NTPDase2 is also not associated with later stages of gliogenesis. Experiments with the Sphase marker bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) demonstrate that NTPDase2positive cell proliferate. Postmitotic BrdU-labeled cells preferentially acquire an NTPDase2positive phenotype. Many of these cells were also positive for GFAP. The contribution of BrdUlabeled cells positive for NTPDase2 increased with time from 2 h to 72 h, validating a strong association of NTPDase2 with proliferating cells of the dentate gyrus. The colocalization studies with various markers and the results of the experiments suggestthat NTPDase2 is associated with cell types of varying maturation states but not with mature neurons or astrocytes. Studies on the formation of neurospheres from the dentate gyrus validate previous data suggesting that the hippocampal progenitors have little capacity for self renewal in vitro. In situ hybridization results indicate the presence of one of the metabotropic purinergic receptor subtypes (the P2Y1 receptor) within the adult neurogenic regions, the dentate gyrus and the lateral walls of the lateral ventricles. A patchclamp analysis demonstrates the presence of functional ionotropic nucleotide receptor (P2X receptors) in progenitor cells expressing nestin promotordriven GFP. They suggest that the signaling pathway via extracellular nucleotides and nucleotide receptors may play a role in the control of adult hippocampal neurogenesis.
Shrew-1 wurde bei der Suche invasivitätsassoziierter Gene mittels eines DDRT-PCR-Ansatzes aus invasiven Zellen isoliert. Wie computergestützte Analysen der Sequenz ergaben, wies das bis dahin unbekannte Protein keinerlei Ähnlichkeiten mit bereits bekannten Proteinen auf und homologe Proteine wurden bisher nur in Vertebraten gefunden. Expressionsanalysen mit einem GFP-markierten shrew-1 zeigten, dass es an der basolateralen Plasmamembran lokalisiert, wo es mit dem E-Cadherin vermittelten Adhäsions-Komplex kolokalisiert. Eine Integration in diesen Komplex geschieht höchstwahrscheinlich durch direkte Interaktion mit β-Catenin. Ein weiteres Molekül das als potenzieller Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 identifiziert wurde und das in der Literatur oft als Tumorsuppressor diskutiert wird, ist Caveolin-1. Ferner konnten Überexpressionexperimente bereits zeigen, dass shrew-1 die Invasivität von HT1080-Zellen erhöhen kann. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, zum einen mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems eine Interaktion von shrew-1 und Caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zum anderen neue Interaktionspartner zu identifizieren, die helfen könnten, die Rolle von shrew-1 in invasiven Vorgängen zu erklären. Um eine mögliche Verbindung von shrew-1 und einem neuen Interaktionspartner in Bezug auf die Zellinvasivität zu untersuchen, sollten sowohl shrew-1 als auch der potenzielle Interaktionspartner mittels RNAi ausgeschaltet werden. Mit Hilfe des Split-Ubiquitin-Systems war es möglich, die Interaktion zwischen shrew-1 und caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zu zeigen, dass diese durch die zytoplasmatische Domäne von shrew-1 vermittelt wird. Weiterhin konnte CD147 als neuer Interaktionpartner identifiziert werden. Eine Interaktion beider Proteine konnte ferner mit Hilfe des Bimolekularen-Fluoreszens-Komplementations-Systems (BIFC), des Fluoreszens-Resonanz-Energie-Transfers (FRET) und Coimmunoprezipitationen bestätigt werden. Die Interaktion von shrew-1 und CD147 scheint allerdings abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein, wie die FRET-Analysen vermuten lassen. So konnte nämlich mit diesen Analysen eine starke Interaktion in MCF7-Zellen gezeigt werden, wohingegen die Interaktion in MDCK-Zellen schwächer war. Einer der auffälligsten Unterschiede dieser beiden Zelllinien im Bezug auf diese Interaktion könnte sein, dass MCF7-Zellen im Gegensatz zu MDCK-Zellen kein Caveolin-1 exprimieren. Caveolin-1 konnte seinerseits als Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems bestätigt werden und andererseits wurde von einer anderen Arbeitsgruppe eine Interaktion von CD147 mit Caveolin-1 publiziert. Um dies näher zu untersuchen, wurde Caveolin-1 in MCF7-Zellen exprimiert und die FRET-Analysen in diesen wiederholt. Wie vermutet kam es zu einer Reduktion der Interaktion in Caveolin-1 exprimierenden MCF7-Zellen. CD147 ist neben vielen anderen Funktionen auch maßgeblich an der Regulation von Matrix-Metalloproteinasen beteiligt und kann somit die Invasivität von Zellen beeinflussen. Um einen Einfluß von shrew-1 und CD147 auf die Invasivität zu untersuchen, wurden beide Proteine mittels RNAi in HeLa-Zellen ausgeschaltet. Nachdem ein negativer Einfluss dieses Ansatzes auf das Proliferationsverhalten der Zellen ausgeschlossen werden konnte, wurde ein möglicher Effekt auf die Invasivität der Zellen untersucht. Durch die Analyse in Matrigel-Invasionsassays konnte gezeigt werden, dass das unabhängige Ausschalten beider Proteine die Invasivität der Zellen auf 35-55% im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen reduziert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit untermauern die Annahme, dass shrew-1 eine Rolle bei invasiven Vorgängen spielt und weisen darauf hin, dass dies möglicherweise durch eine Interaktion mit CD147 geschieht. Die Interaktion mit CD147 und damit eine mögliche Funktion von shrew-1 bei invasiven Vorgängen scheinen dabei abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein.
Membranes are essential for life, because a cell must separate itself from the environment to keep its molecules from dissipating away and also must keep out foreign molecules that disturb them or their cell components. However, the cell must communicate with the environment and adapt to the external conditions, needs to pump in nutrients and release toxic products of its metabolism. Membrane proteins present in the membranes of the cell and cell organelles, help the cell to gather information about the environment and perform various biological processes. Membrane proteins perform a wide range of biological functions including respiration, signal transduction and transport. Despite their high importance in biological function, only few structures have been determined because of the difficulties in producing high amounts of membrane proteins and obtaining good quality crystals. This Ph. D. thesis involves the study of different kinds of cytochrome oxidases and a membrane anchored cytochrome oxidase electron donor. Though structures of many cytochrome oxidases are known to date, there exist many different types of oxidases in different organisms, which help the organism to survive under unfavorable environmental conditions. The structural differences between these terminal oxidases which make the organism to survive in extreme environments are unclear. To investigate these, structures of different types of oxidases are necessary. Therefore, we are interested in revealing the structural details of different types of oxidases. The different types of oxidase I worked with were the caa3 HiPIP:oxygen oxidoreductase from Rhodothermus marinus, the aa3-type quinol oxidase from Acidianus ambivalens and bd-type quinol oxidase from three different organisms (Escherichia coli, Bacillus thermodenitrificans and Aquifex aeolicus). Besides the protein from E. coli all other proteins are from thermophilic organisms from which the proteins obtained are generally believed to be highly stable. The presence of a high content of charged amino acids that enhances the occurrence of salt bridges contributes to the stability of thermophilic proteins. ....
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest membrane protein family and play an essential role in signal transduction through the cell membrane. They are currently the targets of approximately 50 % of the pharmaceuticals on the market (Klabunde and Hessler, 2002). However, only one high-resolution GPCR structure has been determined up to now, that of bovine rhodopsin (Palczewski et al., 2000). The GPCR activation and regulation mechanisms are still unknown and other GPCR structures are thus required. MePNet (Membrane Protein Network) was a European consortium dedicated to structural studies of GPCRs. The approach was to produce 100 GPCRs in three expression systems (Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and Semliki Forest Virus infected mammalian cells) in order to select at each step of the process (production, solubilization, purification) the constructs that fulfilled quantity and quality (functionality) requirements for crystallization trials. In our team, we screened 38 of the 100 targets in P. pastoris. For each receptor, the clone with the highest production level was identified by dot-blot. The size and homogeneity of each receptor were then analyzed by Western-blot. The human adenosine A2A receptor showed a well-defined and pronounced single band and was thus selected for further characterization. The adenosine A2A receptor is a GPCR mainly localized in the central nervous system and, as it antagonizes dopaminergic activity, it has great potential as a drug target for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Functional characterization by binding assays with the specific antagonist [3H]-ZM241385 demonstrated a Bmax of 56 +/- 3 pmol/mg i.e. pmol of binder per milligram of total membrane protein, and a KD of 0.40 +/- 0.02 nM. Receptor production was then improved by lowering the induction temperature, decreasing the induction time and adding DMSO to the medium. For large-scale production, fermention reached around 300 g cells (wet weight)/L culture, which provided 43 mg of functional receptor in membranes per liter of culture. Functional solubilization was achieved with dodecyl-β-D-maltoside and the soluble yield was increased to 70-80 % of the membrane content by addition of cholesteryl hemisuccinate and increasing the ionic strength. The receptor was successfully purified via Ni-NTA and monomeric avidin chromatography in the presence of the antagonist ZM241385. This strategy produced a pure, homogeneous and stable receptor preparation with functionality demonstrated by radioligand binding assays. The total receptor yield after purification was routinely around 20 % of the membrane functional receptor content and 2 g of membranes provided 4 mg of pure receptor for crystallization trials. GPCRs are very difficult targets for crystallization, and co-crystallization with antibody fragments has been shown to be a successful method for crystallization of membrane proteins. In order to develop such a tool for the adenosine A2A receptor, a single-chain Fv (scFv) fragment specific to the purified receptor was selected by phage display. The receptor was functionally immobilized on the surface of streptavidin beads and after two rounds of selection, 6 different phages were identified several times. After production in E. coli and purification via Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, 4 out of the 6 scFv fragments were sufficiently enriched to be tested by ELISA. For the ELISA, the receptor was functionally immobilized via the biotinylation domain of the construct in a 96-well streptavidin-coated plate. The antibody fragments binding to the receptor were identified based on interaction with HRP-conjugated protein L. One scFv fragment gave a positive ELISA signal 10 fold above background and titration of the scFv fragment binding to the receptor was specific and saturable. However no complex of scFv fragment and receptor was observed on gel filtration. In order to have a more sensitive detection method, the scFv fragment was labeled with fluorescein: a complex was then observed up on gel filtration but the binding appeared to be non-specific. A pull-down assay with immobilized non-labeled scFv fragment finally confirmed the specificity of the binding, but also the low affinity of the interaction. Affinity maturation of this specific scFv fragment by a random mutagenesis and selection process should improve this parameter in order to obtain an adapted tool for co-crystallization.
Die Verarbeitung von Informationen im zentralen Nervensystem beruht auf dem Zusammenspiel von erregender und hemmender Neurotransmission. Die Übertragung von Signalen zwischen Neuronen erfolgt chemisch über die Ausschüttung von Neurotransmittern an spezialisierten Kontaktstellen, den Synapsen. Glyzin und gamma-Aminobuttersäure (GABA) sind die bedeutendsten inhibitorischen Neurotransmitter im zentralen Nervensystem von Säugern, welche Rezeptoren vom Glyzin- (GlyR) und GABAA-Typ (GABAAR) aktivieren. Diese ligandengesteuerten Ionenkanäle sind in postsynaptischen Membranen angereichert und mit intrazellulären Proteinen assoziiert. Die Rekrutierung der Rezeptoren in postsynaptischen Domänen ist ein an das zytoplasmatisch lokalisierte Protein Gephyrin gekoppelter Prozess. So bindet Gephyrin spezifisch an die intrazelluläre Domäne der beta-Untereinheit des GlyR (GlyR beta) und bildet für die Verankerung des Rezeptors ein gerüstartiges Netzwerk unterhalb der synaptischen Membran. Die gezielte Inaktivierung des Gephyrin-Gens führt in Mäusen zu einem postnatal letalen Phänotyp und zu dem Verlust der synaptischen Anreicherung des GlyR und bestimmter GABAA-Rezeptoren auf zellulärer Ebene. Gephyrin ist ein 93 kDa großes Protein, das nicht nur im zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS), sondern auch in anderen Organen wie Leber und Niere exprimiert wird, in denen es an der Synthese des Molybdän-Kofaktors von Oxido-Reduktasen beteiligt ist. Das Gephyrin-Protein wird durch 30 Exons codiert, von denen zehn als sogenannte Kassetten alternativ gespleißt werden können. Die bestuntersuchte Spleißvariante besitzt 736 Aminosäuren und ist in eine N- und eine C-terminale Domäne (Aminosäuren 1-181 bzw. 318-736) sowie eine zentrale Linker-Domäne unterteilt. Die N- und die C-terminalen Bereiche von Gephyrin sind den Proteinen MogA und MoeA aus E. coli homolog und werden daher auch als G-Domäne (N-terminal) bzw. E-Domäne (C-terminal) bezeichnet. In kristallographischen Untersuchungen wurde gezeigt, dass die G- und E-Domänen zur Tri- bzw. Dimerisierung befähigt sind. Diese speziellen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der beiden Gephyrindomänen bilden wahrscheinlich die Grundlage für die Entstehung von Gephyrin-Clustern sowie eines hexagonalen Gephyrin-Gerüstes. Dieses Gerüst stellt den Verknüpfungspunkt zwischen Rezeptoren und dem Zytoskelett dar und ermöglicht somit die effiziente Clusterbildung und die zielgerichtete Anordnung einer großen Anzahl inhibitorischer Rezeptoren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten die Rolle dieser beiden Domänen bei der Bildung membranassoziierter Gephyrinaggregate und die molekularen Mechanismen der Clusterbildung des Gephyrinmoleküls untersucht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden durch zielgerichtete Mutagenese unterschiedliche Gephyrin-Mutanten hergestellt, um die Fähigkeit der Oligomerisierung der G- und E-Domäne gezielt zu modifizieren. Dadurch sollte die Bedeutung der Oligomerisierung hinsichtlich der Aggregat- bzw. Clusterbildung untersucht werden. Außerdem sollten die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Gephyrin und anderen Proteinen und deren Einfluss auf die synaptische Lokalisation analysiert werden. Für diese Untersuchungen wurden auf der Basis von Röntgenstruktur-Daten spezifische Aminosäurereste an den bei der Oligomerisierung beteiligten Kontaktstellen ausgetauscht. In der G-Domäne wurden zu diesem Zweck vier separate Aminosäuren des Trimer-Interface durch Arginin ersetzt (GephRRRR). Analog hierzu wurden in der EDomäne einzelne Aminosäuren durch Arginin bzw. Glutamat substituiert (GephRER), um dadurch eine Dimersierung zu verhindern. Für die Kassette C5’ wird angenommen, dass deren Vorhandensein die Interaktion zwischen Gephyrin und GlyR beeinträchtigt, wodurch GlyR aus GABAergenen Synapsen ausgeschlossen wird. Daher wurde der Einfluss dieser Gephyrin-Spleißvariante (GephC5’), die zu einer Peptidinsertion innerhalb der G-Domäne führt, und einer Gephyrin-Mutante (Gephmut), die den Verlust der Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR bedingt, auf die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrinoligomeren untersucht. Bei dem Konstrukt Gephmut wurden, basierend auf Daten von Röntgenstrukturuntersuchungen, neun Aminosäuren (713-721) am Cterminalen Ende der E-Domäne durch den homologen Bereich des bakteriellen MoeA Proteins aus E. coli ersetzt. Zunächst wurden die einzelnen isolierten Domänen mittels Gelfiltration hinsichtlich ihres Oligomerisierungsverhaltens untersucht. Die Mutationen wurden hierzu in verkürzte Proteine eingeführt, bei denen nur die G- bzw. die E-Domäne exprimiert wurden. Diese Konstrukte wurden daher als GRRRR, GC5’ bzw. ERER und Emut bezeichnet. Bei diesen zeigte sich, dass die G-Domäne des Gephyrin-Wildtyps zu trimeren Proteinkomplexen oligomerisiert. Im Gegensatz hierzu war die Mutante GRRRR nicht in der Lage, Trimere zu bilden. Das Einfügen der C5’-Kassette führte ebenfalls zu einer Störung der Trimerisierung. Gelfiltrationsexperimente mit der E-Domäne ergaben, dass die mutierte Domäne ERER, im Gegensatz zum Wildtyp-Konstrukt, keine Dimere ausbildet. Bisherige Studien haben jedoch gezeigt, dass das Emut Polypeptid zur Dimerisierung befähigt ist. Das Oligomerisierungsverhalten des kompletten Gephyrin-Proteins wurde mittels blauer nativer Gelelektrophorese (BN-PAGE) analysiert. Für die hier beschriebenen Untersuchungen mit BN-PAGE wurde rekombinantes Gephyrin in Xenopus laevis Oozyten heterolog exprimiert. Die Analyse ergab, dass Wildtyp Gephyrin nativ als Hexamer vorliegt, welches durch ansteigende Konzentrationen des Detergenzes Natriumdodecylsulfat (SDS) in Trimere, Dimere und Monomere zerfällt. Sowohl GephRRRR und GephC5’ liegen nativ fast ausschließlich als Dimere vor, während GephRER nur trimere Aggregate formt. Die entsprechende Doppelmutante mit Mutationen in Gund E-Domäne war wie erwartet nur noch als Monomer existent. Die als Kontrolle eingesetzte Glyzinrezeptor-Bindungsmutante Gephmut bildete, ebenso wie der Wildtyp, Hexamere aus. Daraus folgt, dass die Oligomere der G- bzw E-Domäne Zwischenprodukte der Hexamerbildung darstellen. Die Analyse der Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der Mutanten wurde nachfolgend in humanen embryonalen Nierenzellen (HEK 293T) untersucht. Nach heterologer Expression von Wildtyp Gephyrin in HEK 293T-Zellen formen sich große, charakteristische Gephyrinaggregate. Die Oligomerisierungs-Mutanten GephRRRR, GephRER und GephC5’ aggregierten jedoch nicht, sondern waren diffus im Zytoplasma verteilt. Die wiederum als Kontrolle eingesetzte Bindungsmutante Gephmut hingegen wies eine normale Aggregation auf. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigen die grundlegende Rolle der Oligomerisierung von G- und E- Domänen für die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrin. Mittels GST-Pulldown und Kolokalisationsanalysen in HEK Zellen wurde die Wechselwirkung der Gephyrinmutanten mit der GlyR beta, dem Motorkomplexprotein Dynein light chain-1 (Dlc-1) und dem Guanin-Nukleotid-Austauschfaktor Collybistin (Cb) untersucht. Beide Ansätze weisen darauf hin, dass die Trimerisierung der G-Domäne an der Interaktion von Gephyrin mit Dlc-1 und die Dimerisierung der E-Domäne bei der Bindung an GlyR beta und Cb beteiligt ist. Die Mutante Gephmut zeigte in beiden Fällen einen totalen Verlust der Bindungsfähigkeit sowohl an das GlyR beta Bindungsmotiv als auch an Cb. Der Einbau der C5’ Kassette in Gephyrin scheint jedoch nicht dessen Bindung an den GlyR zu beeinflussen. Für die Analyse der Clusterbildung und des zielgerichteten Transports in Neuronen wurden Wildtyp und mutiertes Gephyrin in hippocampalen und spinalen Primärkulturen der Ratte exprimiert. Zur Überprüfung einer synaptischen Lokalisation wurde Gephyrin gemeinsam mit dem vesikulären inhibitorischen Aminosäure-Transporter (VIAAT), einem präsynaptischen Marker-Protein, detektiert. In beiden Kulturen wies Gephyrin eine punktartige Verteilung in den Neuriten auf und wurde gezielt an Synapsen angereichert. Im Kontrast dazu zeigten alle Oligomerisierungsmutanten, GephRRRR, GephC5’ und GephRER keine Ausbildung von Clustern sondern eine diffuse Verteilung im Zellkörper und in Dendriten. Das Konstrukt Gephmut wies jedoch Clusterbildung und eine punktförmige Verteilung auf. Diese Daten belegen, dass die Oligomerisierung der G- wie auch der E-Domänen für die Clusterbildung und synaptische Lokalisation von Gephyrin unerlässlich ist. Die Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR und/oder Collybistin ist ebenfalls für die Anreicherung in der Synapse erforderlich, nicht jedoch für die Bildung der Gephyrin-Cluster. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse belegen die Rolle der spezifischen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der G- und E-Domäne für die Ausbildung des hexagonalen Gephyringerüstes und dessen grundlegende Bedeutung für die spezifische Anreicherung von Gephyrin an inhibitorischen Synapsen in Neuronen.
On the molecular basis of novel anti-inflammatory compounds and functional leukocyte responses
(2006)
Inflammation is a complex pathophysiological event that can be triggered by activation of a number of distinct activation pathways eventually leading to the release of pro-inflammatory molecules and enzymes. Among all cells involved in inflammatory processes, neutrophils, monocytes and platelets are of major relevance. Activation of leukocytes occurs via binding of agonists to distinct GPCRs leading to activation of G proteins and proximate signaling cascades. In short, GPCR activation by pro-inflammatory agonists such as fMLP, PAF or LTB4 leads to activation of G proteins that are associated with the receptor at the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane. G proteins consist of a Gα- and a Gβγ-subunit which are associated in the inactive state. In this state, G proteins bind GDP. Upon activation, GDP is replaced by GTP that results in the dissociation of the Gα- from the Gβγ-subunit. Both subunits are capable of activating distinct PLC-β isoenzymes that catalyze the turnover of PtdIns(4,5)P2 into the second messengers Ins(1,4,5)P3 and DAG. Every GPCR holds a distinct pattern of associated G proteins which preferentially activate distinct PLC-β isoenzymes. Ca2+ channels within the SR/ER-membrane function as specific receptors for Ins(1,4,5)P3. Ligation of Ins(1,4,5)P3 to this receptor causes a release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores into the cytosol that is subsequently followed by the influx of Ca2+ e through channels in the plasma membrane. Ca2+ represents an important signaling molecule, involved in the regulation of cellular processes and enzymes that mediate inflammatory events such as ROS formation and the release of degradative enzymes. 5-LO and COXs are involved in the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and catalyze the turnover of AA into LTs and PGs, respectively. Both enzymes play pivotal roles in the initiation and maintenance of allergic diseases and inflammatory processes. LTB4 is regarded as a potent chemotactic and chemokinetic substance, whereas the cysteinyl-LTs cause smooth muscle contraction and increased vascular permeability. Therefore, 5-LO inhibitors are assumed to possess therapeutic potential for the treatment of diseases related to inflammation. Besides the intervention with 5-LO activity, inhibition of COX-activity is an effective way to suppress inflammatory reactions. The two COX isoenzymes, namely COX-1 and COX-2 show different patterns in terms of tissue expression and sensitivity towards inhibitors. COX-1 is supposed to be constantly expressed whereas COX-2 expression is upregulated at sites of inflammation. The extract of H. perforatum is commonly used for the treatment of mild to moderate depressive disorders, accompanied by a moderate profile of side effects. The extract´s efficacy as an antidepressant can be traced back to the content of the phloroglucinol hyperforin which represents the most abundant lipophilic constituent. However, in folk medicine hypericum extracts are additionally used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory skin diseases. In fact, it was shown that hypericum extracts and hyperforin possess anti-inflammatory potential. Hyperforin was described as a dual inhibitor of 5-LO and COX-1. The phloroglucinols MC and S-MC from M. communis significantly differ from the molecular structure of hyperforin. Hyperforin represents a monomeric prenylated derivative whereas MS and S-MC are non-prenylated oligomeric compounds. To date, the anti-inflammatory potential of SM and S-MC has not been investigated in detail. So far, solely antioxidant activity was attributed to MC and S-MC that indeed might qualify them as anti-inflammatory drugs. The phloroglucinols MC, S-MC and hyperforin are potent inhibitors of ROS formation and HLE release. However, any inhibitory potential of these compounds was only observed when cells were activated by GPCR agonists such as fMLP or PAF. In contrast, when cells were stimulated under circumvention of G protein-associated signaling cascades, the abovementioned inhibitors were not effective at all. In leukocytes, [Ca2+]i plays a pivotal role in signal transduction and regulation of the indicated pro-inflammatory cellular functions. We were able to show that MC, S-MC and hyperforin inhibited GPCR-mediated Ca2+ mobilization with approximately the same potency as the above-mentioned leukocyte responses. However, all of the indicated phloroglucinols were ineffective when cells were stimulated with ionomycin. Since ionomycin as well as GPCR agonists exert their effects by mobilizing Ca2+ i, it seems conceivable that MC, S-MC and hyperforin somehow interfere with G protein-associated signaling pathways. In order to investigate PLC as a potential target of hyperforin, the effects of hyperforin were compared to those of the broad spectrum PLC inhibitor U-73122. We found that both inhibitors acted in a comparable manner in terms of agonist-induced Ca2+ mobilization and in regard of the manipulation of basal Ca2+ levels in unstimulated cells. In this respect, significant differences between hyperforin and U-73122 were obvious for inhibition of total PLC activity in vitro. Thus, U-73122 blocked PLC activity whereas hyperforin was ineffective in this respect. This might indicate that only certain PLC isoenzymes are affected by hyperforin. Alternatively, other components within G protein-associated signaling pathways such as G proteins itself or the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor must be taken into account as putative targets of hyperforin. We were able to introduce MC and S-MC as novel dual inhibitors of 5-LO and COX-1. Interestingly, such a pattern was also described for hyperforin. MC and S-MC turned out to be direct inhibitors of 5-LO, based on the fact that they inhibit 5-LO not only in intact cells but also as purified enzyme in vitro. For MC and S-MC, great discrepancies were observed between the IC50 values concerning 5-LO inhibition and the concentrations that exert the antioxidative effects. It seems probable that 5-LO inhibition is not related to reduction of the active site iron as a result of the antioxidant activity of MC and S-MC but rather to direct interference with the 5-LO enzyme. The capability of MC and S-MC to suppress COX-1 activity seems not to be a unique effect of these phloroglucinols because for COX-1, the IBPC, present in both MC and S-MC, turned out to be the most active compound. ....