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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of aggregated species of amyloid beta (Aβ) in the brain, which leads to progressive cognitive deficits and dementia. Aβ is generated by the successive cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), first by β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) and subsequently by the γ-secretase complex. Those conditions which enhace or reduce its clearance predispose to Aβ aggregation and the development of AD. In vitro studies have demonstrated that Aβ assemblies spark a feed-forward loop heightening Aβ production. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Here, we show that oligomers and fibrils of Aβ enhance colocalization and physical interaction of APP and BACE1 in recycling endosomes of human neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells and other cell types, which leads to exacerbated amyloidogenic processing of APP and intracellular accumulation of Aβ42. In cells that are overexpressing the mutant forms of APP which are unable to bind Aβ or to activate Go protein, we have found that treatment with aggregated Aβ fails to increase colocalization of APP with BACE1 indicating that Aβ-APP/Go signaling is involved in this process. Moreover, inhibition of Gβγ subunit signaling with βARKct or gallein prevents Aβ-dependent interaction of APP and BACE1 in endosomes, β-processing of APP, and intracellular accumulation of Aβ42. Collectively, our findings uncover a signaling mechanism leading to a feed-forward loop of amyloidogenesis that might contribute to Aβ pathology in the early stages of AD and suggest that gallein could have therapeutic potential.
Gram-negative Tripartite Resistance Nodulation and cell Division (RND) superfamily efflux pumps confer various functions, including multidrug and bile salt resistance, quorum-sensing, virulence and can influence the rate of mutations on the chromosome. Multidrug RND efflux systems are often characterized by a wide substrate specificity. Similarly to many other RND efflux pump systems, AcrAD-TolC confers resistance toward SDS, novobiocin and deoxycholate. In contrast to the other pumps, however, it in addition confers resistance against aminoglycosides and dianionic β-lactams, such as sulbenicillin, aztreonam and carbenicillin. Here, we could show that AcrD from Salmonella typhimurium confers resistance toward several hitherto unreported AcrD substrates such as temocillin, dicloxacillin, cefazolin and fusidic acid. In order to address the molecular determinants of the S. typhimurium AcrD substrate specificity, we conducted substitution analyses in the putative access and deep binding pockets and in the TM1/TM2 groove region. The variants were tested in E. coli ΔacrBΔacrD against β-lactams oxacillin, carbenicillin, aztreonam and temocillin. Deep binding pocket variants N136A, D276A and Y327A; access pocket variant R625A; and variants with substitutions in the groove region between TM1 and TM2 conferred a sensitive phenotype and might, therefore, be involved in anionic β-lactam export. In contrast, lower susceptibilities were observed for E. coli cells harbouring deep binding pocket variants T139A, D176A, S180A, F609A, T611A and F627A and the TM1/TM2 groove variant I337A. This study provides the first insights of side chains involved in drug binding and transport for AcrD from S. typhimurium.
Ferroelektrische Strontium-Wismut-Tantalat- (SBT) Filme werden in der Mikroelektronik als nicht-flüchtige Speichermedien verwendet und weiterentwickelt. Informationen werden durch Polarisation des Materials gespeichert und bleiben ohne weiteren Energieaufwand über einen Zeitraum von Jahren in solchen Speichern erhalten – sogenannten FeRAMs (Ferroelectric Random Access Memories). Darüber hinaus können gespeicherte Daten innerhalb von wenigen Nanosekunden wieder ausgelesen werden. Zusammengefasst ist eine Langzeitspeicherung kombiniert mit niedrigem Energieverbrauch und schneller Informationsverarbeitung durch den Einzug ferroelektrischer Materialien in die Computertechnologie möglich geworden.
Da die fortschreitende Miniaturisierung in der Mikroelektronik von zentraler Bedeutung ist, sind zur Charakterisierung der verwendeten Materialien Untersuchungsmethoden mit hoher Ortsauflösung unverzichtbar. Das Rasterkraftmikroskop – engl. Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) – ist eine solche Technik, mit der im Submikrometerbereich die Topographie sowie physikalische Eigenschaften von Materialien abgebildet werden können. Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich der Untersuchung von SBT-Filmen mit solchen AFM-Methoden.
Besonders die Rauhigkeit der einzelnen Filme in schichtartig aufgebauten Mikrochips ist bei der Herstellung von Halbleiterbauelementen von großer Bedeutung, wobei möglichst glatte Filme favorisiert werden. Deshalb wurden zunächst verschiedene SBT-Filme auf ihre topographischen Merkmale hin charakterisiert. Die Rauhigkeiten von SBT Filmen verschiedener Herstellungsverfahren wie der Metal Organic Decomposition (MOD) und der Metal Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD) wurden gegenübergestellt. Außerdem ist der Einfluss der SBT-Schichtdicke sowie der des Ferro-Anneals untersucht worden – Ferro-Anneal ist ein Temperungs-Schritt während der Filmherstellung, der zur Bildung der ferroelektrischen Aurivillius-Phase durchgeführt werden muss. Zudem wurde das unterschiedliche Kurzschlussverhalten zweier SBT-Filme in Zusammenhang mit ihren verschiedenen RMS-Rauhigkeitsdaten gebracht.
Der größte Teil der Arbeit setzt sich mit einer Methode auseinander, mit der die Polarisationseigenschaften von ferroelektrischen SBT-Filmen charakterisiert werden sollen – dem AFM/EFM-Polarisationsexperiment – engl. Electrostatic Force Microscope (EFM). Die SBT-Filme werden dabei mit einer AFM-Spitze polarisiert und in einem zweiten Schritt die daraus resultierenden elektrostatischen Felder mit einem EFM über der Probe abgebildet. Es wurde dabei kritisch hinterfragt, in wieweit diese Methode als Beurteilungskriterium der Materialeigenschaften herangezogen werden kann. Zudem wurden Aufladungsphänomene bei dieser Versuchsführung dokumentiert.
Außerdem wurde das Leckstromverhalten von SBT-Filmen auf der Submikrometerskala mit einer relativ neuen Messmethode, dem conducting-AFM (C-AFM), untersucht.
Die Ergebnisse aller Untersuchungen sind im folgenden stichpunktartig dargestellt.
Topographieuntersuchungen:
• Die RMS-Rauhigkeit von MOD/SBT-Filmen ist größer als die der MOCVD/SBTFilme. Mit steigender Prozesstemperatur des Ferro-Anneals wird die Oberflächenrauhigkeit von SBT-Filmen erhöht.
• SBT-Filme, die mit niedrigen Prozesstemperaturen hergestellt wurden, hier als Niedrigtemperatur-Filme bezeichnet, erfahren mit zunehmender Schichtdicke eine Glättung. Sie ist auf die Einbettung der Kristallite in die verhältnismäßig glatte FluoritPhase zurückzuführen, die wegen der geringen Temperaturen während des FerroAnneal-Prozesses noch nicht vollständig in die rauere ferroelektrische AurivilliusPhase umgesetzt wurde.
• Die unterschiedliche Zusammensetzung der Filme SrxBi2.2Ta2O8,3+x mit X1 = 0.9 und X2 = 1,0, im Text als Sr0,9-Film und Sr1,0-Film bezeichnet, führte zu höheren Kurzschlussraten des Sr0,9-Films in fertiggestellten FeRAM-Kondensatoren. Die Ursache kann auf die höhere Oberflächenrauhigkeit des Sr0,9-Films zurückgeführt werden. EFM-Untersuchungen:
• Bei der Polarisation ferroelektrischer SBT-Filme mit einer elektrisch gepolten AFMSpitze werden Ladungen in undefinierbarer Anzahl auf die Oberflächen gebracht. Diese Ladungen sind mehr oder weniger auf den Oberflächen beweglich. Mit zunehmender Polarisierbarkeit des ferroelektrischen Films wird die Ladung stärker am Polarisationsort durch elektrostatische Anziehung zwischen den orientierten Dipolen und der Oberflächenladung fixiert.
Der retinoid-related orphan receptor α (RORα) ist ein nukleärer Rezeptor, der nach Bindung an sein Responselement die Transkription zahlreicher Gene reguliert. Pharmazeutisches Interesse erlangt der Rezeptor vor allem durch seine Verwicklung in pathophysiologische Prozesse wie Osteoporose und Arteriosklerose sowie durch seine antiinflammatorische Wirkung, die auf der negativen Interferenz mit dem NF-κB-Signalweg beruht. Bisher konnten vier RORα-Isoformen isoliert werden, die durch alternatives Spleißen sowie durch die Regulation über unterschiedliche Promotorregionen entstehen. In verschiedenen Studien konnte eine isoformspezifische Regulation als Antwort auf pathophysiologische Veränderungen der Zellen festgestellt werden, wie beispielsweise die Induktion der RORα4-Transkription in Leberzellen infolge einer Sauerstoffunterversorgung. Um Einblicke in die Mechanismen zu gewinnen, die der spezifischen Regulation der RORα4-Expression zugrunde liegen, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der RORα4-Promotor als erster Promotor einer RORα-Isoform identifiziert und analysiert.
Sechs Fragmente mit einer Länge von bis zu 5,1 kbp der aus Datenbanken entnommenen, putativen Promotorsequenz wurden in einen Reportergenvektor kloniert. Transiente Transfektionsexperimente und Reportergenanalysen deckten die Promotoraktivität der gewählten Sequenz auf.
In dem durch einen hohen Gehalt an den Nukleotiden G und C auffallenden Promotor wurden drei einzelne GC-Boxen (A, B und C) sowie eine Viererkette (Box D) und eine Tandem-GCBox (Box E) als mögliche Bindungsmotive für Sp-Transkriptionsfaktoren gefunden. Mithilfe von Kotransfektionen konnte eine Induktion der Promotoraktivität durch die Transkriptionsfaktoren Sp1 und Sp4 nachgewiesen werden, während Sp3 die Promotoraktivität in diesen Experimenten nicht beeinflusste.
Durch die gezielte Mutation oder Deletion, bzw. die Inkubation mit verschiedenen Substanzen konnten diesen GC-Boxen unterschiedliche Funktionen zugeordnet werden. Durch transiente Transfektionen stark verkürzter Promotorfragmente wurde ein für die Promotoraktivität nötiger Sequenzbereich von 170 Basenpaaren eingegrenzt. In Mutationsanalysen wurde demonstriert, dass die beiden proximalen GC-Boxen A und B für die basale Promotoraktivität essentiell sind.
Die RORα4-Promotoraktivität ließ sich zelltypabhängig durch den Phorbolester TPA induzieren. In Deletionsanalysen ließ sich dieser Effekt teilweise auf die GC-Boxen C und D zurückführen. Der distalen GC-Box E konnte ebenfalls eine Funktion zugeordnet werden. In Reportergenanalysen konnte demonstriert werden, dass sie die Induktion der Promotoraktivität durch den HDAC-Inhibitor Trichostatin A vermittelt.
Durch die Untersuchungen an den TK-luc-Konstrukten mit RORα-Responselementen konnte gezeigt werden, dass der virale Promotor aufgrund der einklonierten RORα-Responselemente sehr stark auf die Kotransfektion der RORα-Isoformen reagiert. Die Reportergenanalyse mit diesen Konstrukten stellt daher eine effiziente Methode dar, um die RORα-vermittelte Transaktivierung zu bestimmen.
Obwohl der RORα4-Promotor zahlreiche RORα-Responselemente trägt, konnte in den Kotransfektionen mit Expressionsplasmiden für die einzelnen Isoformen in keiner der drei Zelllinien eine Autoregulation gefunden werden. Ebensowenig zeigte sich ein Einfluss des putativen RORα-Liganden Melatonin auf die Promotoraktivität.
Des Weiteren wurde gezeigt, dass die RORα4-Promotoraktivität in HeLa und MCF-7-Zellen durch das cAMP-Analogon DbcAMP induzierbar ist, während in HEK 293 keine Beeinflussung der Promotoraktivität erzielt wurde. Neben der Steigerung der Promotoraktivität durch TPA, konnte mit der DbcAMP-Induktion folglich ein zweiter, zelltypabhängiger Effekt auf die RORα4-Promotoraktivität identifiziert werden.
Das positions-spezifisch integrierende TRE5-A Retrotransposon besitzt zwei Promotorregionen (A- und C-Modul). Für das C-Modul konnte ein spezifisch bindendes Protein (CbfA) gefunden werden, das vermutlich über die Expression des Minusstrang-Transkripts regulativ in den Transpositionsmechanismus eingreift. Gleichzeitig stellt CbfA in D. discoideum einen kritischen Faktor dar, der sowohl auf das Wachstum als auch auf die Differenzierung Einfluss nimmt.
Es konnte gezeigt werden:
• Der AT-Haken in CbfA ist für die DNA-Bindung essentiell. Die Inaktivierung hat zur Folge, dass keine Differenzierung stattfindet. Es scheint, dass primär der AT-Haken für die DNA-Bindung sorgt und von den Zinkfingern unterstützt wird.
• Die JmjC-Domäne in CbfA ist essentiell. Transformanden mit CbfA ohne aktive JmjC-Domäne zeigen Defekte sowohl in Wachstum als auch Differenzierung.
• CbfA ist ein nukleares Protein. Es konnte zwar keine Kernlokalisationssequenz identifiziert werden, jedoch weisen die Versuche auf zumindest eine Kernlokalisierungssequenz im C-Terminus des cbfA hin.
• Ein C-terminal verkürztes CbfA ist funktionslos: wahrscheinlich aufgrund fehlender Kernlokalisation und somit fehlender DNA-Bindung.
• Ein N-terminal verkürztes CbfA ist teilweise funktionsfähig: die Komplementation in JH.D2-Zellen führt zu einer partiellen Revertierung hin zum Phänotyp der AX2-Zellen.
• Struktur-Homologien der JmjC-Domäne in CbfA zu Mitgliedern aus der Familie der Fe(II)/2OG-Oxygenasen, DNA-bindende Motive und die Lokalisation im Zellkern weisen auf eine Funktion des CbfAs als Chromatin-Remodeller im Zellkern hin.
• In der Transit von Wachstums- zu Entwicklungsphase kann der CbfA-Mangel durch artifizielle Proteinase A-Expression ausgeglichen werden, aber nicht durch Komplementation mit YakA, Adenylat-Zyklase oder cAMP Rezeptor 1.
• CbfA fungiert wahrscheinlich als Regulator der acaA-Transkription auf Ebene der chromosomalen Strukturen.
• cbfB, ein weiteres Gen mit einer JmjC-Domäne wurde in D. discoideum identifiziert, die Gensequenz vervollständigt und vom Dictyostelium Genom-Projekt verifiziert.
Human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles represent a promising tool for targeted drug delivery to tumor cells. The coupling of the antibody trastuzumab to nanoparticles uses the capability of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive cells to incorporate agents linked to HER2. In our present study, we developed targeted nanoparticles loaded with antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) against polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1). We evaluated the receptor-mediated uptake into HER2-positive and -negative breast cancer and murine cell lines. We performed quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analyses to monitor the impact on Plk1 expression in HER2-positive breast cancer cells. Antibody-conjugated nanoparticles showed a specific targeting to HER2-overexpressing cells with cellular uptake by receptor-mediated endocytosis and a release into HER2-positive BT-474 cells. We observed a significant reduction of Plk1 mRNA and protein expression and increased activation of Caspase 3/7. Thus, this is the first report about ASO-loaded HSA nanoparticles, where an impact on gene expression could be observed. The data provide the basis for the further development of carrier systems for Plk1-specific ASOs to reduce off-target effects evoked by systemically administered ASOs and to achieve a better penetration into primary and metastatic target cells. Treatment of tumors using trastuzumab-conjugated ASO-loaded HSA nanoparticles could be a promising approach to reach this goal.
The transcriptional regulator RcsB controls the expression of a minimum of 20 different genes having diverse functionalities and biosynthetic operons in the family of Enterobacteriaceae. While in the heterodimeric complex with the co activator RcsA, the RcsAB box consensus is recognized, DNA binding sites for RcsB without RcsA have also been identified. The conformation of RcsB might therefore be modulated upon interaction with various co activators, resulting in recognition of different DNA targets. In this study the interaction of RcsB with some of these DNA targets have been analysed by a diverse array of techniques including gel shift assay and SPR. The solution structure of the C-terminal DNA-binding domain of RcsB from Erwinia amylovora spanning amino acid residues 129-215 has been solved in this study by heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. The C-terminal domain is composed of four α-helices where the two central helices of the H-T-H motif are similar to the structures of the regulatory proteins GerE, NarL and TraR. The DNA-binding activity of the C-terminal domain alone is established for the first time in this study and was specified by fluorescence spectroscopy, SPR and NMR titration experiments. The molecular interaction between the individual RcsB domains was analysed by cross-linking experiments and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy and the amino acid residues of the C-terminal domain involved in this interaction were identified precisely. Another important part of this project was the cell-free production of different Trp analogue labelled RcsB protein. RcsB protein was produced in quite a good yield with different Trp analogue having spectrally enhanced properties. The isolated RcsB alloproteins proved to be ideal for protein interaction studies by fluorescence spectroscopy and the very first evidence of an oligomerization of RcsB due to molecular association has been put forth from these studies. The phosphorylated state of the RcsB protein was mimicked by a beryllofluoride complex in order to study its role in transcriptional regulation. It was found that RcsB alone could bind to DNA targets upon this modification by the beryllofluoride complex. Thus the phosphorylation of the protein that involves the Asp 56 residue induces a structural change of the protein followed probably by a domain movement also, so that the C-terminal domain having the H-T-H DNA binding motif that was previously eclipsed by the N-terminal domain is relieved of this constraint.
Nitric oxide (NO) is a potent mediator with pleiotropic functions such as inhibition of platelet aggregation, smooth muscle relaxation and regulation of neuronal transmission. These effects are mostly mediated by intracellular NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclases (GCs) which convert GTP into the second messenger, cGMP. This messenger in turn activates multiple downstream effectors such as cGMP-dependent protein kinases, cGMP-regulated ion channels and cGMPdependent phosphodiesterases. Mammalian NO-sensitive GCs are obligate heterodimers of an α and β subunit each. Given that these enzymes play a key role in cGMP-mediated pathways, one may anticipate that mechanisms other than allosteric activation via NO may exist to regulate the production and turnover of cGMP. In this thesis, novel aspects of the regulation of the most abundantly expressed GC heterodimer α1β1 are presented.
A possible mechanism of regulation that was tested here, is tyrosine phosphorylation. Using anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies, the phosphorylation of the β1 subunit was detected after incubation of β1-overexpressing COS-1 cells with protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) inhibitors such as pervanadate and bpV(phen). β1 phosphorylation on tyrosines was also observed in PC-12 cells which endogenously express GC and in rat aorta after inhibition of PTPs. Furthermore, hydrogen peroxide was found to be a physiological stimulus for the induction of reversible β1 tyrosine phosphorylation in intact cells. Using phenylalanine mutants of different tyrosines, residue 192 (Y192) of β1 was identified as the major phosphorylation site. Consistent with this finding, sequence analyses showed that Y192 forms part of a motif that resembles a preferential target site for Src-like kinases. When tyrosine-phosphorylated, this motif exposes a typical SH2 docking site for members of the Src kinase family.
Experiments with inhibitors of Src kinases, PP1 and PP2, clearly showed that phosphorylation of Y192 is Src-dependent. Preincubation of β1-expressing cells with these inhibitors significantly reduced the level of phosphorylated β1 after bpV(phen) treatment. Furthermore, co-expression of β1 with Src led to a strong phosphorylation of this subunit. Co-precipitation experiments showed that Src interacts with GC. Interestingly, kinases of the Src family are recruited to β1 via the SH2 domain upon phosphorylation of Y192. Together, these results indicate that Src kinases phosphorylate tyrosine 192 thereby creating a docking site for their own SH2 domains. Kinase bound to GC may then catalyze phosphorylation of GC or other downstream effectors. Inhibition of PTPs altered GC activity in two ways: it increased both the basal activity and the YC-1- and BAY 41-2272-stimulated activity two-fold, and it reduced the sensitivity of the enzyme towards NO. The detailed mechanism of action is still unknown, but experiments using the mutant β1[Y192F] demonstrated that residue 192 is not responsible for these effects.
Another major focus of this thesis was the identification of novel GC binding proteins. Using the yeast two-hybrid approach, the carboxy-terminal portion of a protein named AGAP1 (amino acid (aa) 399-804) was found to interact with the catalytic domain of α1 (aa 466-690) and with the regulatory domain of β1 (aa 1-348). Human AGAP1 is a multidomain protein of 804 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 89,1 kDa comprising an Arf-GAP (GAP:GTPase activating protein), a putative GTPase domain, two Ankyrin repeats and a PHdomain. Co-precipitation experiments using lysates from mammalian cells overexpressing both binding partners confirmed the interaction of AGAP1 with the GC subunits. Immunofluorescence analyses demonstrated that AGAP1 co-localizes with GC in the cytoplasm of COS-1 cells.
In Northern blots, AGAP1 mRNA was detected in various human and murine tissues showing a comparable expression pattern described for the mRNA of α1 and β1. Using an AGAP1-specific antibody, endogenous protein was precipitated from lysates of HEK-293 cells derived from human embryonic kidney. The same antibody efficiently cross-reacted with the rat homologue (rAGAP1) and immunoprecipitated endogenous rAGAP1 from lysates of PC-12 cells, aorta and heart. The molecular mass of rAGAP1 is larger than that of the human protein, possibly due to an additional exon present in the rat genome. Like β1, AGAP1 is a substrate for tyrosine kinases. Phosphorylation of AGAP1 was detected after inhibition of PTPs or by coexpression of Src. Furthermore, the kinase inhibitor PP2 strongly impaired phosphorylation of AGAP1 after pervanadate treatment suggesting that tyrosine kinases of the Src family are involved. Measurements of cGMP production showed that AGAP1 has no influence on the activity of NO-sensitive GC. Interestingly, inhibition of PTPs potently increased the complex formation between AGAP1 and GC indicating that the interaction between these two proteins is modulated by reversible tyrosine phosphorylation. Whether this effect is due to the phosphorylation of AGAP1 or GC is still unknown. AGAP1 associates with endosomes and exposes Arf-GAP activity towards Arf1 and Arf5 which are involved in vesicular transport. Thus, one may hypothesize that binding of α1β1 to AGAP1 targets GC to distinct subcellular compartments in close proximity to cGMP-dependent effectors, thereby optimizing cGMP generation and fostering cGMP-driven actions.
Taken together, these results demonstrate that beside the modulation of GC by NO the enzyme is regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation and interaction with AGAP1.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Herstellung von codierten Peptidbibliotheken durch kombinatorische Synthese, sowie deren Selektion auf Wechselwirkung mit einer verkürzten Sequenz der TAR-RNA des HI-Viruses.
Die zur Selektion benötigte RNA wurde dazu auf chemischem Wege hergestellt und mit einem Fluoreszensfarbstoff für eine optische Selektion markiert. Ausgehend von dieser RNA wurde ein Anfärbeassay entwickelt. Bei der Anwendung des Assays auf Tri- und Pentapeptide, die auf einem Polymerträger immobilisiert waren, zeigten sich einige intensiv leuchtende Polymerkügelchen. Die hellsten unter ihnen wurden selektiert. Die Synthese der Trimeren und Pentamerenbibliothek erfolgte zuvor an wasserquellbarem, polymerem Trägermaterial. Die Identifizierung der polymergebundenen Verbindungen erfolgte über die Codierung nach W.C. Still, welche im Rahmen dieser Dissertation in der Arbeitsgruppe von Hr. Prof. Göbel erfolgreich etabliert wurde und die einfache Unterscheidung zwischen Enantiomeren ermöglicht. Drei der am häufigsten auftretenden Trimerensequenzen wurden im Nachhinein erneut synthetisiert und Experimenten an Zellen zugeführt. Unabhängig davon, wurde ihre Wechselwirkung mit RNA als auch mit RNA-Peptid Komplexen direkt getestet.
Weiterhin wurde exemplarisch anhand von Aminopyridinen die Möglichkeit getestet, neuartige Synthesemonomere für die automatische Synthese polymergebundener Verbindungen darzustellen.
Die vorliegende Arbeit macht deutlich, dass man durch kombinatorische Synthese im Verbund mit gerichteter Selektion, die Entwicklung von in vitro RNA-Liganden für RNA mit bekannter Struktur vorantreiben kann. Umgekehrt müsste dies auch bald die Selektion von Liganden für strukturell nicht charakterisierte RNA ermöglichen.
Das nächste Ziel sollte, die Entwicklung weiterer Selektionstests sein und die Etablierung von NMR-Methoden, welche die genauen Bindungsmodi der selektierten Verbindungen an RNA aufklären, um somit die gezielte Synthese neuartiger Liganden vorantreiben zu können, da letztendlich das "Wie", für die Weiterentwicklung einer Leitstruktur ausschlaggebend ist.
Weiterhin sollten die Transportmechanismen von körperfremden Substanzen zu dem gewünschten Wirkort studiert werden, damit die vorab in vitro getestete Substanz auch im späteren Entwicklungsstadium in vivo die gewünschten Eigenschaften zeigen kann.
Aim of the present study was the characterization of the RORa receptor (Retinoidrelated Orphan Receptor a). RORa is a member of the nuclear receptor family and is involved into the differentiation of Purkinje cells, inflammation, arteriosclerosis, and bone mineralization. Nuclear receptors are transcription factors and mediate biological responses within target cells to outer signals such as lipophilic hormones. They are involved in development, growth, differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and maintenance of homeostasis. Ligand binding, posttranslational modifications, and cofactor recruitment control their activity. Nearly all nuclear receptors share a common modular structure with an Nterminal A/B region, a DNA-binding domain (DBD) that is composed of two zinc finger motifs, a hinge region, and a C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD). The RORs comprise the subtypes RORa, RORb, and RORg, which are encoded by different genes. All isoforms of the respective subtypes only differ in their A/B domain. This study focused mainly on the exploration of the gene structure, expression, and subcellular distribution of RORa...
Metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is one of the most challenging tumor entities in pediatric oncology caused by treatment resistances and immune escape. Novel chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) immunotherapies as specific, effective and safe treatment provide antitumor cytotoxicity by soluble factors and ligands/receptor signals. Besides its intrinsic potential as innate immune cell the ErbB2-sprecific CAR-engineered natural killer (NK)-92 cell line NK-92/5.28.z also provides CAR-mediated cytotoxicity, resulting in a high lytic capacity against 2D and 3D RMS cell structures in vitro. Also in a xenograft model using immune deficient NOD/Scid/IL2Rγ-/- (NSG) mice inhibited NK-92/5.28.z the tumor growth as long as the cells were administered and therefore prolonged the survival of the animals. The NK-92/5.28.z were distributed by the blood circulation and subsequently infiltrated the tumor tissue. Due to the malignant origin of the NK-92 cell line the cells must be irradiated prior to the use in patients. While the irradiation hampered the proliferation of NK-92/5.28.z cells, the cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro is retained for at least 24 hours. In the xenograft model irradiated NK-92/5.28.z cells inhibited the tumor growth but to a lower extent than untreated cells, as irradiated cells have only a limited life span in vivo no durable persistence and remission was achieved. Therefore, combinatorial approaches were focused and while blocking of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis did not resulted in a significantly enhanced tumor cell lysis, the combinatorial treatment with proteasome inhibitor bortezomib exhibited a significant enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells at least in vitro. Bortezomib itself induces caspase mediated apoptosis and also the upregulates the expression of TRAIL receptor DR5. The corresponding ligand TRAIL is expressed on the surface of the NK-92/5.28.z and pursuing experiments with purified TRAIL and bortezomib revealed a synergism. NK-92/5.28.z as an off-the-shelf product is therefore feasible for the therapy of metastatic RMS, but it might be necessary to support the cytotoxicity by additive agents like proteasome inhibitor bortezomib to archive durable remission.
Another cell population suitable for RMS CAR-immunotherapy are cytokine induced killer (CIK) cells, a heterogenous cell population generated from autologous PBMCs consisting of T, NK and T-NK cells. Lentivirally transduced ErbB2-specific CAR-CIK cells were previously shown to inhibit the tumor engraftment in a RMS xenograft model. However, lentiviral transduced adoptive immunotherapies bear risks for the transfer in patients, therefore the Sleeping Beauty Transposon System (SBTS) as a non-viral method, which integrates the CAR coding DNA by a cut-and-paste mechanism from a minicircle (MC) into the CIK cells genome is more feasible for the generation of CAR-CIK cells. The Sleeping beauty transposase mRNA and the MC were transferred in the cell by nucleofection, different factors influence the transfection efficiency and viability of the CIK cells in this harsh procedure. In preliminary experiments with MC Venus, a MC encoding eGFP, the highest transfection efficiency with the best proliferative capacity was achieved with cells on day 3 of CIK culture and without the addition of autologous monocytes as feeder cells. For the CAR construct the protocol was further improved by adjusting crucial factors, for this construct the best results were achieved on day 0, without irradiated PBMCs as feeder cells and cultivation in X-Vivo10 medium supplemented with human fresh frozen plasma. The X-Vivo10 medium enhanced the percentage of NK- and T-NK cells significantly compared to CAR-CIK cells cultured in RPMI. Since the gene transfer by SBTS resulted in CAR-CIK cells stably expressing a CAR in all subpopulations, resulting in a significantly enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro, these cells were compared to lentiviral transduced CAR-CIK cells in vitro and in vivo. While the SBTS CAR-CIK cells were superior to viral CAR-CIK cells in 2D short-term assays, the viral cells showed higher lytic capacity in 3D spheroid long-term assays. In a RMS xenograft model lentiviral CAR-CIK cells significantly prolonged the survival of mice and persisted, whereas SBTS CAR-CIKs did not favor the overall survival compared to untreated controls and also did not persist. Phenotypic analysis revealed a highly cytotoxic CD8+ and late effector memory dominant phenotype for SBTS CAR-CIK cells supporting short-term cytotoxicity but also more prone for exhaustion, while viral CAR-CIK cells showed a more balanced phenotype for memory and cytotoxicity. Therefore, the SBTS is feasible for the ErbB2-CAR gene transfer in CAR-CIK resulting in a stable CAR-expression with high short-term cytotoxicity, but these cells are also more prone to exhaustion and the protocol might be adapted further to prevent this limitation for in vivo application.
This work underlines the hard-to-treat characteristics of metastatic RMS, but also shows some approaches for further evaluation like the combination of NK-92/5.28.z cells with bortezomib and the feasibility of the generation of CAR-CIK cells via SBTS.
To evade the host's immune response, herpes simplex virus employs the immediate early gene product ICP47 (IE12) to suppress antigen presentation to cytotoxic T-lymphocytes by inhibition of the ATP-binding cassette transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). ICP47 is a membrane-associated protein adopting an alpha-helical conformation. Its active domain was mapped to residues 3-34 and shown to encode all functional properties of the full-length protein. The active domain of ICP47 was reconstituted into oriented phospholipid bilayers and studied by proton-decoupled 15N and 2H solid-state NMR spectroscopy. In phospholipid bilayers, the protein adopts a helix-loop-helix structure, where the average tilt angle of the helices relative to the membrane surface is approximately 15 degrees (+/- 7 degrees ). The alignment of both structured domains exhibits a mosaic spread of approximately 10 degrees . A flexible dynamic loop encompassing residues 17 and 18 separates the two helices. Refinement of the experimental data indicates that helix 1 inserts more deeply into the membrane. These novel insights into the structure of ICP47 represent an important step toward a molecular understanding of the immune evasion mechanism of herpes simplex virus and are instrumental for the design of new therapeutics.
Through its role in intron cleavage, tRNA splicing endonuclease (TSEN) plays a critical function in the maturation of intron-containing pre-tRNAs. The catalytic mechanism and core requirement for this process is conserved between archaea and eukaryotes, but for decades, it has been known that eukaryotic TSENs have evolved additional modes of RNA recognition, which have remained poorly understood. Recent research identified new roles for eukaryotic TSEN, including processing or degradation of additional RNA substrates, and determined the first structures of pre-tRNA-bound human TSEN complexes. These recent discoveries have changed our understanding of how the eukaryotic TSEN targets and recognizes substrates. Here, we review these recent discoveries, their implications, and the new questions raised by these findings.
Rat renal mesangial cells express high levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) in response to inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta). We tested whether ligands of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPARalpha) could influence the cytokine-induced expression of MMP-9. Different PPARalpha agonists dose-dependently inhibited the IL-1beta-triggered increase in gelatinolytic activity mainly by decreasing the MMP-9 steady-state mRNA levels. PPARalpha agonists on their own had no effects on MMP-9 mRNA levels and gelatinolytic activity. Surprisingly, the reduction of MMP-9 mRNA levels by PPARalpha activators contrasted with an amplification of cytokine-mediated MMP-9 gene promoter activity and mRNA expression. The potentiation of MMP-9 promoter activity functionally depends on an upstream peroxisome proliferator-responsive element-like binding site, which displayed an increased DNA binding of a PPARalpha immunopositive complex. In contrast, the IL-1beta-induced DNA-binding of nuclear factor kappaB was significantly impaired by PPARalpha agonists. Most interestingly, in the presence of an inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor, the PPARalpha-mediated suppression switched to a strong amplification of IL-1beta-triggered MMP-9 mRNA expression. Concomitantly, activators of PPARalpha potentiated the cytokine-induced iNOS expression. Using actinomycin D, we found that NO, but not PPARalpha activators, strongly reduced the stability of MMP-9 mRNA. In contrast, the stability of MMP-9 protein was not affected by PPARalpha activators. In summary, our data suggest that the inhibitory effects of PPARalpha agonists on cytokine-induced MMP-9 expression are indirect and primarily due to a superinduction of iNOS with high levels of NO reducing the half-life of MMP-9 mRNA.
An efficient route for delivering specific proteins and peptides into neurons could greatly accelerate the development of therapies for various diseases, especially those involving intracellular defects such as Parkinson disease. Here we report the novel use of polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles for delivery of intact, functional proteins into neurons and neuronal cell lines. Uptake of these particles is primarily dependent on endocytosis via the low density lipoprotein receptor. The nanoparticles are rapidly turned over and display minimal toxicity to cultured neurons. Delivery of three different functional cargo proteins is demonstrated. When primary neuronal cultures are treated with recombinant Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase as nanoparticle cargo, persistent enzyme activity is measured beyond the period of nanoparticle degradation. Delivery of the small GTPase rhoG induces neurite outgrowth and differentiation in PC12 cells. Finally, a monoclonal antibody directed against synuclein is capable of interacting with endogenous alpha-synuclein in cultured neurons following delivery via nanoparticles. Polybutylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles are thus useful for intracellular protein delivery in vitro and have potential as carriers of therapeutic proteins for treatment of neuronal disorders in vivo.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) serves as a cap-like structure on cellular RNAs (NAD-RNAs) in all domains of life including the bacterium Escherichia coli. NAD also acts as a key molecule in phage-host interactions, where bacterial immune systems deplete NAD to abort phage infection. Nevertheless, NAD-RNAs have not yet been identified during phage infections of bacteria and the mechanisms of their synthesis and degradation are unknown in this context. The T4 phage that specifically infects E. coli presents an important model to study phage infections, but a systematic analysis of the presence and dynamics of NAD-RNAs during T4 phage infection is lacking. Here, we investigate the presence of NAD-RNAs during T4 phage infection in a dual manner. By applying time-resolved NAD captureSeq, we identify NAD-capped host and phage transcripts and their dynamic regulation during phage infection. We provide evidence that NAD-RNAs are – as reported earlier – generated by the host RNA polymerase by initiating transcription with NAD at canonical transcription start sites. In addition, we characterize NudE.1 – a T4 phage-encoded Nudix hydrolase – as the first phage-encoded NAD-RNA decapping enzyme. T4 phages carrying inactive NudE.1 display a delayed lysis phenotype. This study investigates for the first time the dual epitranscriptome of a phage and its host, thereby introducing epitranscriptomics as an important field of phage research.
Interferon-stimulated gene-15 (ISG15) is an interferon-induced protein with two ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domains linked by a short peptide chain, and the conjugated protein of the ISGylation system. Similar to ubiquitin and other Ubls, ISG15 is ligated to its target proteins with a series of E1, E2, and E3 enzymes known as Uba7, Ube2L6/UbcH8, and HERC5, respectively. Ube2L6/UbcH8 plays a literal central role in ISGylation, underscoring it as an important drug target for boosting innate antiviral immunity. Depending on the type of conjugated protein and the ultimate target protein, E2 enzymes have been shown to function as monomers, dimers, or both. UbcH8 has been crystalized in both monomeric and dimeric forms, but the functional state is unclear. Here, we used a combined approach of small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to characterize UbcH8′s oligomeric state in solution. SAXS revealed a dimeric UbcH8 structure that could be dissociated when fused with an N-terminal glutathione S-transferase molecule. NMR spectroscopy validated the presence of a concentration-dependent monomer-dimer equilibrium and suggested a backside dimerization interface. Chemical shift perturbation and peak intensity analysis further suggest dimer-induced conformational dynamics at ISG15 and E3 interfaces - providing hypotheses for the protein′s functional mechanisms. Our study highlights the power of combining NMR and SAXS techniques in providing structural information about proteins in solution.