Biochemie und Chemie
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Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (1975)
- Medizin (83)
- Exzellenzcluster Makromolekulare Komplexe (68)
- Biowissenschaften (64)
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- Zentrum für Biomolekulare Magnetische Resonanz (BMRZ) (63)
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- Georg-Speyer-Haus (22)
Chemically modified bases are frequently used to stabilize nucleic acids, to study the driving forces for nucleic acid structure formation and to tune DNA and RNA hybridization conditions. In particular, fluorobenzene and fluorobenzimidazole base analogues can act as universal bases able to pair with any natural base and to stabilize RNA duplex formation. Although these base analogues are compatible with an A-form RNA geometry, little is known about the influence on the fine structure and conformational dynamics of RNA. In the present study, nano-second molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been performed to characterize the dynamics of RNA duplexes containing a central 1'-deoxy-1'-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-ß-D-ribofuranose base pair or opposite to an adenine base. For comparison, RNA with a central uridine:adenine pair and a 1'-deoxy-1'-(phenyl)-ß-D-ribofuranose opposite to an adenine was also investigated. The MD simulations indicate a stable overall A-form geometry for the RNAs with base analogues. However, the presence of the base analogues caused a locally enhanced mobility of the central bases inducing mainly base pair shear and opening motions. No stable ‘base-paired’ geometry was found for the base analogue pair or the base analogue:adenine pairs, which explains in part the universal base character of these analogues. Instead, the conformational fluctuations of the base analogues lead to an enhanced accessibility of the bases in the major and minor grooves of the helix compared with a regular base pair.
Der bc1-Komplex ist eine Komponente der Atmungskette und damit essentiell für den Energiestoffwechsel vieler Organismen, die zum aeroben Wachstum befähigt sind. Im Vergleich zu mitochondrialen bc1-Komplexen, die bis zu elf unterschiedliche Untereinheiten besitzen, ist das Enzym aus Paracoccus denitrificans mit nur drei Untereinheiten einfach aufgebaut. Vergleicht man die Sequenz des P. denitrificans Cytochrom c1 Genproduktes mit denen anderer prokaryotischer und mitochondrialer Cytochrom c1 Untereinheiten, so fällt auf, dass dieses prokaryotische Protein eine für Paracoccus charakteristische zusätzliche N-terminale Domäne von ca. 150 Aminosäuren trägt, die zudem eine sehr auffällige Zusammensetzung besitzt (40% saure Reste, 40% Alanine, keine einzige positiv geladene Aminosäure). Diese saure Domäne wird in anderen Organismen durch zusätzliche Untereinheiten innerhalb des bc1-Komplexes dargestellt, die in direkter Assoziation mit dem Cytochrom c1 vorliegen. Bis dato konnte für Paracoccus jedoch noch kein eindeutiger Beweis für eine Beteiligung dieser sauren Domäne an der Wechselwirkung zwischen bc1 und den Substraten des Komplexes geführt werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es zunächst, zwei lösliche Fragmente des Cytochrom c1 aus P. denitrificans zu konstruieren und in E. coli heterolog zu exprimieren. Durch zielgerichtete Mutagenese am Cytochrom c1 und anschließende kinetische Charakterisierung der Produkte sollte die funktionelle Bedeutung einzelner Aminosäurereste dargestellt werden. Es ist im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gelungen, zwei lösliche Fragmente des Cytochrom c1 aus P. denitrificans zu exprimieren. Für das saure Fragment (SF) wurde lediglich der Membrananker deletiert, während das Kernfragment (KF) durch die zusätzliche Deletion der sauren Domäne als eine Art minimalisiertes Cytochrom c1 anzusehen ist. Beide Fragmente konnten nach erfolgreicher Aufreinigung durch pre-steady-state-Kinetiken in ihrer Wechselwirkung mit dem homologen Reaktionspartner Cytochrom c552 sowie mit drei weiteren c-Typ Cytochromen funktionell charakterisiert werden. Des weiteren wurden zahlreiche Mutanten von KF hergestellt und ebenfalls hinsichtlich ihrer Wechselwirkung mit Cytochrom c552 getestet. Die Untersuchungen zur Ionenstärkeabhängigkeit des Cytochrom c1 zeigten, dass das saure Fragment unter den gewählten Versuchsbedingungen im Vergleich zu KF keine erhöhte Spezifität gegenüber Cytochrom c552 besitzt. Es konnte jedoch eindeutig gezeigt werden, dass die Interaktion der beiden untersuchten Elektronentransportpartner von der Wechselwirkung geladener Aminosäureseitenketten auf beiden Proteinen abhängt und somit elektrostatischer Natur ist. Dieser Sachverhalt wird zusätzlich durch die Ergebnisse bestätigt, die mit der Negativkontrolle (Cytochrom c551 aus Ps. aeruginosa) erzielt wurden. Dieses negativ geladene Protein zeigte nur eine schwach affine Wechselwirkung mit dem ebenfalls stark negativ geladenen Cytochrom c1 aus P. denitrificans. Zusätzliche kinetische Untersuchungen mit weiteren Cytochromen im Bereich mittlerer Ionenstärke zeigten, dass die beiden löslichen Fragmente SF und KF keine erhöhte Spezifität gegenüber homologen Elektronenakzeptoren (Cyt c552 und Cyt c550 aus P. denitrificans) im Vergleich zu dem nicht-homologen Reaktionspartner (Pferdeherz Cyt c) besitzen. Bei diesen drei Cytochromen handelt es sich um Proteine, die eine basische Interaktionsfläche aufweisen. In Hinblick auf die Ergebnisse zur Wechselwirkung von KF und SF mit dem löslichen Cytochrom c551 aus Ps. aeruginosa wird jedoch deutlich, dass die Spezifität des Cytochrom c1 gegenüber möglicher Substrate alleinig durch das Kriterium des Oberflächenpotentials bedingt ist. Keine der eingeführten Punktmutationen führte zu einem vollständigen Aktivitätsverlust des Proteins. Vielmehr zeigten die meisten Mutanten eine im Vergleich zum Wildtyp leicht herabgesetzte Geschwindigkeitskonstante der Elektronentransport-Reaktion. Der deutlichste Effekt wurde für die Mutanten E243K (36 % der WT-Aktivität) und E243Q (78 % der WT-Aktivität) bestimmt. Dieser Rest ist am oberen, dem Periplasma zugewandten Rand der Hämspalte positioniert, wodurch eine direkte Interaktion mit dem Cytochrom c552 während der Elektronentransport-Reaktion sehr gut möglich ist. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bestimmten Geschwindigkeitskonstanten der Reaktion zwischen Cytochrom c1 und Cytochrom c552 lassen eindeutig auf einen diffusionskontrollierten Prozess schließen. Ein solches Verhalten schließt eine spezifische Oberflächen-Wechselwirkung der beiden Proteine nicht aus Die Ergebnisse der Mutagenesestudie verdeutlichen jedoch, dass die Substratspezifität nicht primär durch definierte gegensätzliche Ladungspaare auf der Oberfläche von Cytochrom c1 und Cytochrom c552 definiert wird.
Protonen gekoppelter Elektronentransfer ist ein zentraler Bestandteil der chemiosmotischen Theorie. Die Beschreibung seiner Natur ist aufgrund seines transienten Charakters eine komplexe Aufgabe. Elektrometrische Messungen stellen hier eine große Hilfe in der Erfassung von Ladungsverschiebungen dar. Sie erlauben die zeitliche Beschreibung des Elektronen- und Protonentransportes, der mit kaum einer geeigneten Methode beobachtet werden kann, und geben Einblick in deren molekularen Mechanismus. Diese Technik wurde hier an drei verschiedenen Membrankomplexen der Atmungskette angewandt: der Cytochrom c Oxidase (COX) aus Paracoccus denitrificans, der Quinol-Fumarat-Reduktase (QFR) aus Wolinella succinogenes und dem bc(1)-Komplex aus Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Hinsichtlich der experimentellen Vorgehensweise für kinetische Untersuchungen stellte sich ein übergreifendes Problem. Neben einer schnellen Aktivierung der Enzymsysteme bedurfte es eines definierten Ausgangszustands. Ziel dieser Arbeit war das Etablieren von Bedingungen, die elektrometrische Messungen am bc(1) und der QFR erlauben, sowie die Fortführung dieser Methodik am bereits vorhandenen System der COX. Cytochrom c Oxidase Elektrometrische Untersuchungen an der COX wurden basierend auf Vorarbeiten weitergeführt. Insbesondere die Ladungsverschiebungen nach Photoreduktion ausgehend vom völlig oxidierten Zustand rückten in den Fokus. In diesem Schritt wird ein Proton aufgenommen, während Häm a vom angeregten Zustand eines Rutheniumkomplexes reduziert wird. Dieses Verhalten ist unabhängig vom heterogenen Ausgangszustand der COX, er wird jedoch durch eine Änderung des pH-Wertes beeinflußt. Der heterogene Ausgangszustand im O-E-Übergang wurde in einem sequentiellen Modell diskutiert. Dabei wurde auf die Diskrepanz zwischen den elektrometrischen und den publizierten spektroskopischen Messungen hingewiesen. Während spektroskopisch die Cu(A)-Oxidation und Häm a-Reduktion in einer Phase verliefen, wurde in den elektrometrischen Messungen eine zweite deutlich langsamere Phase für den Protonentransfer beobachtet. Ein sequentielles Reaktionsmodell führte hier zu einem Widerspruch. Die Auswirkungen auf die Natur der Kopplung von Häm a und dem aufgenommenen Proton wurden diskutiert. Die Kinetik der Ladungsverschiebung wurde detailliert anhand der Temperaturabhängigkeit und des Isotopeneffektes untersucht und mit den Ergebnissen aus den Messungen an einem thermophilen Enzym, der ba(3)-Oxidase aus Thermus thermophilus, verglichen. Quinol-Fumarat-Reduktase Für eine schnelle Aktivierung der QFR wurde ein caged Fumarat synthetisiert, das nach Photolyse zu einer schnellen Erhöhung der Fumaratkonzentration führte. Die neue Substanz wurde bezüglich einer möglichen Verwendung für die QFR charakterisiert. Die Freisetzung erfolgte mit einer Zeitkonstante von 0,1 ms und aktivierte die QFR nur im photolysierten Zustand. Aufgrund der Photochemie der metallischen Kofaktoren in der QFR konnten jedoch keine kinetischen Messungen durchgeführt werden. Da die photochemisch induzierten Elektronenbewegungen in der QFR mit zunehmender Wellenlänge abnahmen, wurde eine neue Substanz vorgeschlagen, die im sichtbaren Spektralbereich gespalten werden kann. bc(1)-Komplex Der bc(1)-Komplex kann wie die COX durch einen Rutheniumkomplex aktiviert werden. Ein dimerer sowie ein an Cytochrom c gekoppelter Rutheniumkomplex wurde hierfür anhand von Literaturdaten synthetisiert, und die Verbindungen wurden hinsichtlich ihrer Eigenschaften nach Lichtanregung charakterisiert. Für die elektrometrischen Messungen wurde der bc(1)-Komplex in Proteoliposomen rekonstituiert, und der Ausgangszustand des bc(1)-Komplexes unter reduktiven und oxidativen Bedingungen eingestellt. Mit dem dimeren Rutheniumkomplex wurden elektrometrische Experimente durchgeführt, die zu zwei Phasen in der Spannungsantwort führten. Die Daten wurden zusammen mit den publizierten spektroskopischen diskutiert. Dabei wurde eine schnelle elektrogene Phase einem Elektronentransfers zwischen Häm c(1) und dem Eisen-Schwefel-Cluster des Rieske-Proteins zugeordnet. Eine langsamere Phase erwies sich sensitiv gegenüber Antimycin und spiegelt Vorgänge unter der Kontrolle der Q(i)-Bindungsstelle wider.
It is considered whether Fermat’s so called Last Theorem can be understood by substituting variables by polynomials and discussing their properties. The same substitution yields a survey of the Pythagorean Triples.
In recent publications Otto Hahn, last president of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, is charged with having favoured the Nazi regime, before World War II by politically purging institutes and suppressing Lise Meitner’s contribution to the discovery of nuclear fission, and during the war by contributing to the German war efforts, mainly to the development of nuclear weapons. These charges, however, which partly concern also the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft and some of their institutes are based on ignorance or disregard of the historical sources.
The development of resistance to multiple drugs is a major problem in treatment of number of infectious diseases and cancer. The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is based on the synergetic interplay of a number of mechanisms such as target inactivation, target alteration, prevention of drug influx as well as active extrusion of drugs from the cell. The latter is mediated by over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps. The first discovered and the best characterized until now the human MDR transporter is P-glycoprotein. It is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and acts as an active transporter for a variety of anticancer agents using the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. The closest structure and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein found in bacteria is LmrA from Lactococcus lactis. The major goals of this work are to establish the selective isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis, to optimize LmrA sample preparation for solid-state NMR, and finally to perform first solidstate NMR investigations on LmrA shedding light on its catalytic cycle and substrate binding. For a long time the solid-state NMR applications to biological science has been limited to investigation of small molecules mostly. Recently, the solid-state NMR methods have shown potential for structuraland non-perturbing, site directed functional studies of large membrane proteins as well as ligands bound to them. However, to our knowledge neither selective isotope amino acid labelling of any ABC transporter, nor NMR investigations on full-length ABC transporter have been reported to date. Solidstate NMR experiments on a membrane protein require reconstitution of purified proteins into a membrane environment at a high density and either isotopic enrichment of the protein or bound drugs or inhibitors. Therefore, the large quantities of LmrA reconstituted at a high density in lipid membranes, sufficient for advanced NMR studies have been produced and its functional state in reconstituted form has been assessed. In the next step, a procedure for cost effective selective amino acids isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis has been established. Using this protocol deuterium alanine labelled LmrA reconstituted into E. coli liposomes has been prepared. Deuterium NMR has been used extensively to assess the proteins dynamics in past. However, it has never been applied to ABC transporter. Here, we report 2H NMR on selective alanine isotope labelled LmrA which has been used to shed light on the dynamics changes in the protein occurred under AMP-PNP, non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, binding and in ATP/ADP-Vanadate trapped state. It has been found that the major conformation changes affecting the protein motional characteristics occur in the ATP binding domains but not in the transmembrane domains. Additionally, the binding of several substrates to LmrA has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by 19F and 31P solid-state NMR. The binding constants for several LmrA substrates have been obtained by fitting the concentration dependant tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence quenching curves. Based on the fluorescence studies and solid-state NMR data, the conformation changes in LmrA under substrate binding have been discussed. In addition, the preferable location of nine LmrA and P-glycoprotein substrates within the model membrane has been studied via 1H-MAS-NOESY-NMR. The results have been interpreted with respect to LmrA and P-glycoprotein binding site accessibility from the membrane interface region.
The Na+/proline transporter of E. Coli (PutP) is responsible for the uptake of proline which is subsequently used not only as a carbon and nitrogen source and a constituent of proteins but also as a particularly effective osmoprotectant. However, for a long time there was little known about the single steps in the reaction cycle of this transporter and only few details about its structure-function relationship are available. Aim of the present work was to achieve a deeper understanding about the kinetic properties of the Na+/proline transporter and to get insights into the structure-function relationship of the substrate binding. To answer these questions different techniques were used. By using the novel SSM technique combining the preparation of PutP proteoliposomes it was possible to demonstrate for the first time the electrogenic substrate binding to PutP transporter. Due to rapid solution exchange measurements on the SSM it was additionally possible to obtain time resolved information about the kinetic details of the cytoplasmic substrate binding sites which were not available by previous steady state and equilibrium binding measurements. Pre-steady-state charge translocation was observed after rapid addition of one or both of the cosubstrates Na+ and/or proline to the PutP-WT proteoliposomes adsorbed on the SSM. Thereby it was possible to link the observed electrical signals with the binding activity of PutP. The observed Na+ and/or proline induced charge displacement were assigned to an electrogenic Na+ and/or proline binding process at the cytoplasmic face of the enzyme with a rate constant of k > 50 s-1 proceeding the rate limiting step of the reaction cycle. Furthermore, based on the kinetic analysis of the electrical signals obtained from the measurements of PutP on SSM, the following characteristics of the substrates binding in PutP were deduced: (1) both Na+ and proline can bind individually to the transporter. Under physiological conditions, an ordered binding mechanism prevails; while at sufficiently high concentrations, each substrate can bind in the absence of the other; (2) substrate binding is electrogenic not only for Na+, but also for the uncharged cosubstrate proline. The charge displacement associated with Na+ binding and proline binding is of comparable size and independent of the presence of the respective cosubstrate. In addition, it was concluded that Na+ accesses its binding site through a high-field access channel resulting in a charge translocation, whereas the binding of the electroneutral proline induces a conformation alteration involving the displacement of charged amino acid residue(s) of the protein; (3) Na+ and proline binding sites interact cooperatively with each other by increasing the affinity and/or the speed of binding of the respective cosubstrate; (4) proline binding proceeds in a two step process: low affinity (~ 0.9 mM) electroneutral substrate binding followed by a nearly irreversible electrogenic conformational transition; (5) membrane impermeable PCMBS inhibits both Na+ and proline binding to the inside-out orientated PutP transporter, indicating that rather than selectively blocking a specific binding site, PCMBS probably locks the enzyme in an inactive state. The possible targets for this SH-reagent are cysteines 281 and 344 located close to the cytoplasmic surface of the protein. Beyond it, transient electrical currents of PutP were also observed on the BLM after rapid addition of proline in the presence of Na+. This was possible by combining the conventional BLM technique with high-speed flash-photolysis of caged-proline. Indeed the signals on the BLM indicate the detection of a different underlying reaction process in comparison to the data achieved by the SSM technique. This has paved the way for supplemental information about the reaction cycle since it was possible to assign the flash-photolysis BLM signals to the proline binding step followed by the internalization of Na+ and proline into the liposome. Thereby it was found, that the presence of Na+ is indispensable and the time constant for the process is ~ 63 ms. Moreover, structure-function information about the Na+ and proline binding sites of PutP was obtained by investigating the functionally important amino acid residues Asp55, Gly63 and Asp187 with site-directed mutagenesis and the combined SSM technique. One finding is that the mutated proteins PutP-D55C and PutP-G63C showed no activity on the SSM. Therefore, it can be assumed that either both Asp55 and Gly63 are crucial for the structure of PutP protein, or they are located at or close to the Na+ and proline binding sites. Furthermore, the results obtained from PutP-D187N and PutP-D187C mutants on SSM suggest that Asp187 of PutP is likely to be involved in the Na+ binding at the cytoplasmic side of the backward running carrier. Taken together the results of the present work have substantially broadened the known picture of the Na+/proline transporter PutP thereby several steps of the reaction cycle were elucidated, and moreover, valuable insights into the structure-function relationship of the transporter have become available.
The technique of site-specific fluorescence labelling with Tetramethylrhodaminemaleimide (TMRM) in combination with two electrode voltage-clamp technique (TEVC), an approach that has been named voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF), has been used in this work to study the Na,K-ATPase. The TMRM dye has the ability to attach covalently to cysteine residues and it responds to changes in the hydrophobicity of its local environment. We exploited this property using a construct of the Na-pump in which the native, extracellularly accessible cysteines were removed and cysteine residues were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis in specific positions of the Na-pump. In this way it was possible to detect site-specific conformational rearrangements of the Na-pump in a time-resolved fashion within a native membrane environment. In particular this technique allows to resolve reactions with low electrogenicity that cannot be satisfactorily analyzed with purely electrophysiological techniques and to identify the conformations of the enzyme under specific ionic composition of the measuring buffers. We used VCF to study the influence that several cations like Na+, K+, NMG+, TEA+ and BTEA+ exert on the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase between several enzymatic intermediates and on some of the reactions related to cation transport. To this end we utilized the mutants N790C in the loop M5-M6 and the mutant E307C, T309C, L311C and E312C in the loop M3-M4. From the correspondence of the fluorescence changes with the activation and inhibition of pumping current, by K+ and ouabain respectively, and from the fact that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions the voltage distribution of charge movement and fluorescence changes evoked by voltage jumps are in reasonable agreement we conclude that through the fluorescence signals measured from these mutants, we can indeed monitor conformational changes linked to transport activity of the enzyme. For the mutants N790 and L311, it was found that the Na+ dependence of the amplitude and kinetics of the fluorescence signal associated with the E1P-E2P transition is in agreement with the prediction of an access channel model describing the regulation of the access of extracellular Na+ to its binding site. In particular for the mutants E307 and T309 it was found that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions, the conformational change tracked by the fluorescence was much slower than the charge relaxation at hyperpolarized potentials while the kinetics was very similar at depolarized potentials. This implies that at hyperpolarized potentials the conformational change connected to the E1P-E2P transition does not give a large contribution to the electrogenicity of the process which is also consistent with the access channel model. On the mutant N790C it was found that the external pH does not seem to have any effect on the E1P-E2P equilibrium even if it seems to modulate the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. Fluorescence quenching experiments with iodide and D2O indicate that at hyperpolarized potentials the local environment of the mutant N790C, experiences a small change in the accessibility to water without major changes in the local electrostatic field ...
Sodium proton antiporters are ubiquitous membrane proteins found in the cytoplasmic and organelle membranes of cells of many different origins, including plants, animals and microorganisms. They are involved in cell energetics, and play primary roles in the homeostasis of intracellular pH, cellular Na+ content and cell volume. Adaptation to high salinity and/or extreme pH in plants and bacteria or in human heart muscles requires the action of such Na+/H+ antiporters. NhaA is the essential Na+/H+ antiporter for pH and Na+ homeostasis (at alkaline pH) in Escherichia coli and many other enterobacteria. NhaA is an electrogenic Na+/H+ antiporter that exchanges 2H+ for 1Na+ (or Li+). NhaA shares with many other prokaryotic and eukaryotic antiporters a very strong dependence on pH. In order to achieve three-dimensional structure of NhaA, the previously described NhaA protein preparation was modified: (i) the wild type bacterial strain (TA16) used for homologous over-expression of NhaA was replaced with a delta nhaA strain (RK20). As a result, the purity and homogeneity of the sample was significantly improved; (ii) the previously two-step purification procedure was shortened to a single step affinity chromatography purification; (iii) a wide-range screening of crystallisation conditions, more than 20,000, was performed; (iv) a Seleno-L-methionine (SeMet) NhaA derivative was produced in order to solve the phases during structure determination. In parallel, attempts of production and crystallisation of co-complexes composed of NhaA and antibody fragments have been made. Four different monoclonal antibodies were available against NhaA. Selected antibody fragments were produced and the stability of the complex analysed. Here, the crystal structure of the pH down-regulated secondary transporter NhaA of Escherichia coli is presented at 3.45 Å resolution. A negatively charged ion funnel opens to the cytoplasm and ends in the middle of the membrane at the putative ion-binding site. There, a unique assembly of two pairs of short helices connected by crossed, extended chains creates a balanced electrostatic environment. A possible mechanism is proposed: the binding of charged substrates causes electric imbalance inducing movements, which allow for a rapid alternating access mechanism. This ion exchange machinery is regulated by a conformational change elicited by a pH signal perceived at the cytoplasmic funnel entry. The structure represents a novel fold that provides two major insights: it reveals the structural basis for the mechanism of Na+/H+ exchange and its unique regulation by pH in NhaA and in many other similar antiporters. Furthermore, it is also important for the understanding of the architecture of membrane proteins in general. However, although many aspects of the ion-translocation mechanism and pH regulation are clarified by the NhaA structure, higher resolution structures with Li+ or Na+ bound are required for understanding the ligand binding and the translocation mechanism at the atomic level. The alkaline pH-induced conformation is essential to further understand the pH-control and proton access to the binding site.