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The ability to permeate accross the blood brain barrier (BBB) is essential for drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, systems that allow rapid and inexpensive screening of the BBB-permeability properties of novel lead compounds are of great importance for speeding up the drug discovery process in the CNS-area. We used immortalized porcine brain microvessel endothelial cells (PBMECICl-2) to develop a model for measurement of blood-brain barrier permeation of CNS active drugs. Investigation of different cell culture conditions showed, that a system using C6 astrocyte glioma conditioned medium and addition of a cyclic AMP analog in combination with a type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor (R020-1724) leads to cell layers with transendothelial electrical resistance values up to 300 Ω.cm2. Permeability studies with U-[14C]sucroseg ave a permeability coefficient Pe of 3.24 + 0.14 × 10−4 cm/min, which is in good agreement to published values and thus indicates the formation of tight junctions in vitro.
Background: A delta and C fibers are the major pain-conducting nerve fibers, activate only partly the same brain areas, and are differently involved in pain syndromes. Whether a stimulus excites predominantly A delta or C fibers is a commonly asked question in basic pain research but a quick test was lacking so far. Methodology/Principal Findings: Of 77 verbal descriptors of pain sensations, "pricking", "dull" and "pressing" distinguished best (95% cases correctly) between A delta fiber mediated (punctate pressure produced by means of von Frey hairs) and C fiber mediated (blunt pressure) pain, applied to healthy volunteers in experiment 1. The sensation was assigned to A delta fibers when "pricking" but neither "dull" nor "pressing" were chosen, and to C fibers when the sum of the selections of "dull" or "pressing" was greater than that of the selection of "pricking". In experiment 2, with an independent cohort, the three-descriptor questionnaire achieved sensitivity and specificity above 0.95 for distinguishing fiber preferential non-mechanical induced pain (laser heat, exciting A delta fibers, and 5-Hz electric stimulation, exciting C fibers). Conclusion: A three-item verbal rating test using the words "pricking", "dull", and "pressing" may provide sufficient information to characterize a pain sensation evoked by a physical stimulus as transmitted via A delta or via C fibers. It meets the criteria of a screening test by being easy to administer, taking little time, being comfortable in handling, and inexpensive while providing high specificity for relevant information.
Resistance in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis is associated with poor prognosis for long term survival in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). As Smac mimetics have been shown to reactivate apoptosis by antagonizing Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins, we investigate the potential of the Smac mimetic BV6 to overcome glucocorticoid-resistance in ALL. This study shows that BV6 synergistically cooperates with glucocorticoids to trigger apoptosis and to suppress clonogenic growth of pediatric ALL cells. Of note, the BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment also induces cell death in cells having defects in the apoptotic signaling cascade by inducing a switch from apoptotic to necroptotic cell death. The clinical relevance of our novel combination treatment is underscored by parallel experiments in primary pediatric ALL samples, in which glucocorticoids and BV6 act together to induce cell death in a synergistic manner. Importantly, the addition of BV6 enhances the anti-leukemic effects of glucocorticoids in an in vivo mouse model of pediatric ALL without causing substantial side effects, highlighting the potency of a BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment. In contrast, BV6 does not increase cytotoxicity of glucocorticoids against several non-malignant cell types of the lympho-hematopoietic system. Furthermore, we have identified the novel underlying mechanism of BV6/glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by showing that BV6 and glucocorticoids synergistically act together to promote assembly of the ripoptosome, a RIP1/FADD/caspase-8-containing cell death complex. Ripoptosome assembly is critically required for BV6/Dexamethasone-induced cell death, since genetic silencing of its members, i.e. RIP1, reduces ROS production, caspase activation and most importantly cell death induction. BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment promotes ripoptosome assembly by inhibition of both of its negative regulators, IAP proteins and cFLIP. Thus, we identify that BV6 and glucocorticoids cooperate together to reduce cIAP1, cIAP2 and XIAP protein levels and cFLIP expression. Ripoptosome formation occurs independently of autocrine/paracrine loops of death receptor ligands, since blocking antibodies for TNFα, TRAIL or CD95L or genetic silencing of their corresponding receptors fail to rescue BV6/glucocorticoid-induced cell death. In summary, this study shows that the Smac mimetic BV6 sensitizes for glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by promoting ripoptosome assembly with important implications for the treatment of childhood ALL.
Background: Birch pollen-allergic subjects produce polyclonal cross-reactive IgE antibodies that mediate pollen-associated food allergies. The major allergen Bet v 1 and its homologs in plant foods bind IgE in their native protein conformation. Information on location, number and clinical relevance of IgE epitopes is limited. We addressed the use of an allergen-related protein model to identify amino acids critical for IgE binding of PR-10 allergens.
Method: Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) from meadow rue is structurally homologous to Bet v 1 but does not bind Bet v 1-reactive IgE. NCS was used as the template for epitope grafting. NCS variants were tested with sera from 70 birch pollen allergic subjects and with monoclonal antibody BV16 reported to compete with IgE binding to Bet v 1.
Results: We generated an NCS variant (Δ29NCSN57/I58E/D60N/V63P/D68K) harboring an IgE epitope of Bet v 1. Bet v 1-type protein folding of the NCS variant was evaluated by 1H-15N-HSQC NMR spectroscopy. BV16 bound the NCS variant and 71% (50/70 sera) of our study population showed significant IgE binding. We observed IgE and BV16 cross-reactivity to the epitope presented by the NCS variant in a subgroup of Bet v 1-related allergens. Moreover BV16 blocked IgE binding to the NCS variant. Antibody cross-reactivity depended on a defined orientation of amino acids within the Bet v 1-type conformation.
Conclusion: Our system allows the evaluation of patient-specific epitope profiles and will facilitate both the identification of clinically relevant epitopes as biomarkers and the monitoring of therapeutic outcomes to improve diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of allergies caused by PR-10 proteins.
Single long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)) are known for their neuroprotective properties associated with ischemic stroke. This pilot study aimed to test the effectiveness of an acute treatment with a long-chain omega-3 lipid emulsion (Omegaven 10%®, OGV) that contains fish oil (DHA 18 mg/ml; EPA 21 mg/ml) and α-tocopherol (0.2 mg/ml) in a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemic stroke in mice. For this purpose, female CD-1 mice were anesthetized and subjected to 90 minutes of MCAO. To reflect a clinically relevant situation for an acute treatment, either after induction of stroke or after reperfusion, a single dose of OGV was injected intravenously into the tail vein (5 ml/kg b.w.). A neurological severity score was used to assess motor function and neurological outcome. Stroke-related parameters were determined 24 hours after MCAO. Microdialysis was used to collect samples from extracellular space of the striatum. Mitochondrial function was determined in isolated mitochondria or dissociated brain cells. Inflammation markers were measured in brain homogenate. According to control experiments, neuroprotective effects could be attributed to the long-chain omega-3 content of the emulsion. Intravenous injection of OGV reduced size and severity of stroke, restored mitochondrial function, and prevented excitotoxic glutamate release. Increases of pro-inflammatory markers (COX-2 and IL-6) were attenuated. Neurological severity scoring and neurochemical data demonstrated that acute OGV treatment shortly after induction of stroke was most efficient and able to improve short-term neurological outcome, reflecting the importance of an acute treatment to improve the outcome. Summarising, acute treatment of stroke with a single intravenous dose of OGV provided strong neuroprotective effects and was most effective when given immediately after onset of ischemia. As OGV is an approved fishoil emulsion for parenteral nutrition in humans, our results may provide first translational data for a possible early management of ischemic stroke with administration of OGV to prevent further brain damage.
Therapy of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is unsatisfactory. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are active against leukemic cells in vitro and in vivo. Clinical data suggest further testing of such epigenetic drugs and to identify mechanisms and markers for their efficacy. Primary and permanent AML cells were screened for viability, replication stress/DNA damage, and regrowth capacities after single exposures to the clinically used pan-HDACi panobinostat (LBH589), the class I HDACi entinostat/romidepsin (MS-275/FK228), the HDAC3 inhibitor RGFP966, the HDAC6 inhibitor marbostat-100, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) indomethacin, and the replication stress inducer hydroxyurea (HU). Immunoblotting was used to test if HDACi modulate the leukemia-associated transcription factors β-catenin, Wilms tumor (WT1), and myelocytomatosis oncogene (MYC). RNAi was used to delineate how these factors interact. We show that LBH589, MS-275, FK228, RGFP966, and HU induce apoptosis, replication stress/DNA damage, and apoptotic fragmentation of β-catenin. Indomethacin destabilizes β-catenin and potentiates anti-proliferative effects of HDACi. HDACi attenuate WT1 and MYC caspase-dependently and -independently. Genetic experiments reveal a cross-regulation between MYC and WT1 and a regulation of β-catenin by WT1. In conclusion, reduced levels of β-catenin, MYC, and WT1 are molecular markers for the efficacy of HDACi. HDAC3 inhibition induces apoptosis and disrupts tumor-associated protein expression.
The most frequently used parameters to describe the barrier properties of endothelial cells (ECs) in vitro are (i) the macromolecular permeability, indicating the flux of a macromolecular tracer across the endothelium, and (ii) electrical impedance of ECs grown on gold-film electrodes reporting on the cell layer's tightness for ion flow. Due to the experimental differences between these approaches, inconsistent observations have been described. Here, we present the first direct comparison of these assays applied to one single cell type (human microvascular ECs) under the same experimental conditions. The impact of different pharmacological tools (histamine, forskolin, Y-27632, blebbistatin, TRAP) on endothelial barrier function was analyzed by Transwell(®) tracer assays and two commercial impedance devices (xCELLigence(®), ECIS(®)). The two impedance techniques provided very similar results for all compounds, whereas macromolecular permeability readings were found to be partly inconsistent with impedance. Possible reasons for these discrepancies are discussed. We conclude that the complementary combination of both approaches is highly recommended to overcome the restrictions of each assay. Since the nature of the growth support may contribute to the observed differences, structure-function relationships should be based on cells that are consistently grown on either permeable or impermeable growth supports in all experiments.
Full reconstruction of large lobula plate tangential cells in Drosophila from a 3D EM dataset
(2018)
With the advent of neurogenetic methods, the neural basis of behavior is presently being analyzed in more and more detail. This is particularly true for visually driven behavior of Drosophila melanogaster where cell-specific driver lines exist that, depending on the combination with appropriate effector genes, allow for targeted recording, silencing and optogenetic stimulation of individual cell-types. Together with detailed connectomic data of large parts of the fly optic lobe, this has recently led to much progress in our understanding of the neural circuits underlying local motion detection. However, how such local information is combined by optic flow sensitive large-field neurons is still incompletely understood. Here, we aim to fill this gap by a dense reconstruction of lobula plate tangential cells of the fly lobula plate. These neurons collect input from many hundreds of local motion-sensing T4/T5 neurons and connect them to descending neurons or central brain areas. We confirm all basic features of HS and VS cells as published previously from light microscopy. In addition, we identified the dorsal and the ventral centrifugal horizontal, dCH and vCH cell, as well as three VSlike cells, including their distinct dendritic and axonal projection area.
Background: The alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha 7-nAChR) is well known as a potent calcium ionophore that, in the brain, has been implicated in excitotoxicity and hence in the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Previous research implied that the activity of this receptor may be modified by exposure to a peptide fragment derived from the C-terminal region of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This investigation was undertaken to determine if the functional changes observed could be attributed to peptide binding interaction with the alpha 7-nAChR, or peptide modulation of receptor expression. Methodology/Principal Findings: This study provides evidence that two peptides derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase, not only selectively displace specific bungarotoxin binding at the alpha 7-nAChR, but also alter receptor binding properties for its familiar ligands, including the alternative endogenous agonist choline. Of more long-term significance, these peptides also induce upregulation of alpha 7-nAChR mRNA and protein expression, as well as enhancing receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane. Conclusions/Significance: The results reported here demonstrate a hitherto unknown relationship between the alpha 7-nAChR and the non-enzymatic functions of acetylcholinesterase, mediated independently by its C-terminal domain. Such an interaction may prove valuable as a pharmacological tool, prompting new approaches for understanding, and combating, the process of neurodegeneration.
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder marked by progressive loss of memory and cognitive ability. The pathology of AD is characterised by the presence of amyloid plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and pronounced cell death. The aim of this thesis was to investigate pathways involved in the Aß cascade of neurodegeneration. Since novel findings indicate that already this Aß species exerts neurotoxic effects long before hyperphosphorylated tau, neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular Aß plaques appear, the investigations were accomplished with specific regard to the effects of intracellular Aß. The Swedish double mutation in the APP gene results in six- to eightfold increased Aß production of both Aß1-40 and Aß1-42 compared to human wildtype APP cells (APPwt). Data obtained from PC12 cells indicate that it is possible to specifically increase the Aß load without enhancing APP expression levels. On the basis of these findings, it seemed possible to investigate dose-dependent effects of Aß in multiple experimental designs. These assay designs were created in order to mimick different in-vivo situations that are discussed to occur in AD patients: APPsw PC12 cells exhibit low physiological concentrations of Aß within picomolar range in contrast to APPsw HEK cells, expressing Aß levels within the nanomolar range. Of note, the APPsw HEK cells showed a specific and highly significant increase in the intracellular accumulation of insoluble Aß1-42. Moreover, an intracellular accumulation of Aß and APP was found in the mitochondria of the HEK APPsw cells suggesting a direct impact on mitochondrial function on these cells. This effect might finally lead to disturbances in the energy metabolism of the cell or to increased cell death. Furthermore, baseline g- and ß-secretase activity was assessed since these enzymes represent promising therapeutic targets to slow or halt the disease process. As expected, ß-secretase activity was significantly elevated in all APPsw cell lines. This might be due to the proximity of the Swedish double mutation next to the N-terminus of the Aß sequence. Interestingly, g-secretase activity was similarly increased in PC12 APPsw cells. In addition, the toxicity of different Aß species was investigated in SY5Y and PC12 cells with regard to their effect on cellular viability mirrored by mitochondrial activity using MTT assay. Here, it turned out that not monomers, but already dimers are neurotoxic correlates. Fibrillar Aß species showed the highest toxicity. In the next step, SY5Y cells forming endogenous, dimeric APP and Aß were investigated. In accordance with previous findings, these cells showed a decreased MTT reduction potential in comparison to APPwt and control SY5Y cells reflecting a decrease of cellular viability. The impaired energy metabolism of the cells was even more drastically mirrored by reduced baseline ATP levels. In the second part of this thesis, the expression and intracellular distribution of Bcl-2 family proteins and pro-apoptotic mitochondrial factors under baseline conditions and during oxidative stress were analyzed in the APPwt and APPsw bearing cells. The most prominent finding was the reduction of expression levels of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL in the cytosolic fractions of APPwt and APPsw PC12 cells. This might indicate that a lack of anti-apoptotic factors or their altered intracellular distribution, rather than an increase in caspase-dependent pro-apoptotic factors, could be responsible for the increased vulnerability of APPwt- and APPsw-transfected PC12 cells against oxidative stress. Since total Bcl-xL expression was unaffected in PC12 cells, in contrast to APPwt and APPsw-expressing SY5Y and HEK cells revealing significantly decreased Bcl-xL expression levels. Thus, alterations in Bcl-xL distribution seem to be an early event in the disease process. Increasing Bcl-xL expression might potentially be one promising strategy for AD modification. PC12 and HEK cells bearing APPsw or APPwt were treated with the potent g-secretase inhibitor DAPT. Of note, DAPT did not only efficiently block Aß production, but additionally led to an elevation of the MTT reduction potential, reflecting an increase in cellular viability. As another disease-modifying strategy, several efforts are undertaken to ameliorate AD-relevant symptoms by the treatment with nerve growth factor (NGF). Generally, it is known that substituted pyrimidines have modest growth-promoting effects. Here, KP544, a novel substituted pyrimidine, was characterised. This drug increased MTT reduction potential in terminally differentiated and undifferentiated PC12 cells. Furthermore, treatment with KP544 led to a reduction in Aß1-40 secretion. Thus, one may conclude that the target of KP544, GSK-3ß, represents a connecting link between the two main pathological hallmarks of AD and might thus be a very promising therapeutic target for AD.