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This paper reports the results of a corpus investigation on case conflicts in German argument free relative constructions. We investigate how corpus frequencies reflect the relative markedness of free relative and correlative constructions, the relative markedness of different case conflict configurations, and the relative markedness of different conflict resolution strategies. Section 1 introduces the conception of markedness as used in Optimality Theory. Section 2 introduces the facts about German free relative clauses, and section 3 presents the results of the corpus study. By and large, markedness and frequency go hand in hand. However, configurations at the highest end of the markedness scale rarely show up in corpus data, and for the configuration at the lowest end we found an unexpected outcome: the more marked structure is preferred.
The argument that I tried to elaborate on in this paper is that the conceptual problem behind the traditional competence/performance distinction does not go away, even if we abandon its original Chomskyan formulation. It returns as the question about the relation between the model of the grammar and the results of empirical investigations – the question of empirical verification The theoretical concept of markedness is argued to be an ideal correlate of gradience. Optimality Theory, being based on markedness, is a promising framework for the task of bridging the gap between model and empirical world. However, this task not only requires a model of grammar, but also a theory of the methods that are chosen in empirical investigations and how their results are interpreted, and a theory of how to derive predictions for these particular empirical investigations from the model. Stochastic Optimality Theory is one possible formulation of a proposal that derives empirical predictions from an OT model. However, I hope to have shown that it is not enough to take frequency distributions and relative acceptabilities at face value, and simply construe some Stochastic OT model that fits the facts. These facts first of all need to be interpreted, and those factors that the grammar has to account for must be sorted out from those about which grammar should have nothing to say. This task, to my mind, is more complicated than the picture that a simplistic application of (not only) Stochastic OT might draw.
In seinen Schriften zur Typologie des Relativsatzes behandelt Lehmann auch das Baskische […] Die Diskussion um den baskischen Relativsatz geht jedoch schon auf De Rijk (1972) zurück und wird von Oyharqabal (1985) fortgesetzt. In diesen Werken geht es um allgemeine Themen der Typologie des Relativsatzes (vor allem um das Problem der Zugänglichkeit), wobei allerdings wichtige Fragen unberücksichtigt bleiben: Warum gibt es im Baskischen mehrere unterschiedliche Relativsatzkonstruktionen? Worin unterscheiden sie sich? Wie lassen sie sich voneinander und gegen andere Verfahren der Nominalisierung abgrenzen, mit anderen Worten: welche Konstruktion gehört noch zu den Relativsatzbildungen, welche nicht mehr? Ich will hier die verschiedenen Verfahren der Relativsatzbildung (Relativierung) vorstellen und versuchen, mit Hilfe von Lehmanns (1984) Kontinuum der Nominalisierung Ordnung in die Phänomene , zu bringen, um schließlich Erklärungsansätze zu finden.
Vor gut vierzig Jahren hat Milewski (1950) das Werkzeug der Syntaxtypologie um das Begriffspaar "kon- und exzentrische Struktur" vermehrt. Dieses Klassifikationsmittel wurde später von Nichols (1984,1986) erneuert und terminologisch mit der Unterscheidung von head- und dependent-marking erfasst. Dabei hat die Autorin vorgeschlagen, diese Unterscheidung auch für die Typologie der Relativkonstruktion fruchtbar zu machen.
Der Relativsatz im Bambara
(1986)
Vorrangiges Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, die Relativsatzbildung im Bambara zu beschreiben. In der Darstellung der verschiedenen Relativsatzarten werden die Fragen berücksichtigt, welche Partizipanten der Relativisierung zugänglich sind, inwieweit der Relativsatz semantisch bzw. syntaktisch dem Matrixsatz untergeordnet ist, we1che Funktionen der Relativsatz im Hauptsatz übernehmen kann, wie in den jeweiligen Relativkonstruktionen der Bezug von Nukleus und Relativsatz gewährleistet wird und welche Funktionen das Relativum hat. Diese Fragestellungen erwachsen aus der Lektüre von Ch. Lehmanns Buch (1984), das den theoretischen Hintergrund für die folgenden Ausführungen bildet.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Zusammenhänge und Unterschiede der einzelnen Relativsatzarten aufgezeigt, sowie Grenzbereiche der Relativsatzbildung angeschnitten. Letztere sind dort erreicht, wo Relativsätze gebraucht werden, um solche gedankliche Verknüpfungen herzustellen, die typischerweise durch andere Nebensatzarten geleistet werden. Die Betrachtungen des Grenzbereichs werden auf Satzgefüge und Tei1sätze beschränkt, komplexe Syntagmen, wie z. B. Partizipialkonstruktionen, die z. T. ähnliches leisten wie Relativsätze, werden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nicht berücksichtigt. Ein Vergleich der Relativsatzarten führt durch die Zuordnung zu Parametern der Grammatika1isierung zur Entwicklung eines innersprachlichen Kontinuums, das ein von Lehmann ausgearbeitetes intersprachlich anwendbares Kontinuum unterstreicht.
Vorwort : Hansjakob Seiler
Deskriptive und metaphorische Benennung im Bereich der deutschen Nominalformen : Rita Becker
Die Anwendung des Prinzips der deskriptiven und etikettierenden Benennung auf Instrumentausdrücke im Deutschen und Ungarischen : Elisabeth Katz
Etikettierende und deskriptive Benennung in Prä- und Postpositionalsystemen : Heribert Walter
Das deskriptive Prinzip im Hebräischen : Edna Habel
Anwendung der Prinzipien der deskriptiven und der etikettierenden Benennung auf Farbbezeichnungen im Deutschen : Charlotte Schwendy
Deskriptiv vs. Etikettierend in der Fachsprache der EDV : Wolfgang Kirsch
Relativkonstruktionen : Bernhard Clasen und Claudia Seip
Die […] Arbeiten entstanden im Rahmen eines vom Unterzeichneten geleiteten Forschungsseminars über sprachliche Universalien im Wintersemester 1974/75. Das Interesse konzentrierte sich auf den als "deskriptive und etikettierende Benennung" bezeichneten Problembereich; die Relativkonstruktionen, hier durch eine Arbeit vertreten, hängen letztlich mit dem genannten Problembereich zusammen. Eine weitere Studie über Relativkonstruktionen sowie sonstige zur Zeit noch in Arbeit befindliche Aufsätze dieses Seminars werden vielleicht, in einem späteren Arbeitspapier Aufnahme finden.
In diesem Aufsatz geht es um Sätze, deren Vorfeld mit einem anaphorischen d-Pronomen des Typs der/die/das besetzt ist und die - im Gegensatz zu Relativsätzen - Zweitstellung des Finitums aufweisen (d-V2-Sätze), wie in: "Ich habe einen Bekannten, der fährt einen Porsche." Sätze dieser Art werden in drei Perioden der Sprachgeschichte untersucht. Das Korpus besteht aus Texten aus dem Frühneuhochdeutschen, dem 19. Jahrhundert und der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. In allen drei Perioden kommen d-V2- Sätze vor. Sie werden nach ausgewählten Kriterien untersucht und mit Relativsätzen verglichen. Es werden Bedingungen formuliert, unter denen Relativsätze durch d-V2-Sätze substituiert werden können.
Für die Bildung von freien Relativsätzen existieren in verschiedenen Sprachen unterschiedliche Regeln. In einer Reihe von Sprachen muß der Kasus des Relativpronomens mit dem Kasus übereinstimmen, den das Matrixverb für die NP fordert, an deren Stelle der freie Relativsatz auftritt. Diese sogenannten "Matching-Effekte" sind jedoch nicht in allen Sprachen vorhanden. Es gibt Sprachen, in denen Matching generell nicht oder unter bestimmten Bedingungen nicht erforderlich ist. Deutsch wird im allgemeinen zu den Sprachen gerechnet, in denen freie Relativsätze Matching-Effekte aufweisen müssen. Ein Ziel dieses Aufsatzes ist, zu zeigen, daß dies nicht uneingeschränkt gilt. Auch im Deutschen gibt es freie Relativsätze, die kein Matching aufweisen. Bei dem Kasuskonflikt zwischen dem vom Matrixverb und dem Verb innerhalb des freien Relativsatzes geforderten Kasus kann ersterer unrealisiert bleiben, wenn er höher auf der Kasushierarchie rangiert als der vom Verb im freien Relativsatz geforderte Kasus. Unabhängige Evidenzen für diese Hierarchie werden aufgezeigt. Abschließend werden die Konsequenzen dieses Befunds für die Struktur von freien Relativsätzen diskutiert.
Kopflose Relativsätze werden wie abhängige Fragesätze durch ein w-Element (seltener auch ein d-Element) eingeleitet. Von besonderem Interesse ist hier, daß das w-Element in kopflosen Relativsätzen in den Subkategorisierungsrahmen des Matrixverbs passen muß, während w-Elemente in abhängigen Fragesätzen völlig unabhängig davon sind.
How the left-periphery of a wh-relative clause determines its syntactic and semantic relationships
(2004)
This paper discusses a certain class of German relative clauses which are characterized by a wh-expression overtly realized at the left periphery of the clause. While investigating empirical and theoretical issues regarding this class of relatives, it argues that a wh-relative clause relates syntactically to a functionally complete sentential projection and semantically to entities of various kinds that are abstracted from the matrix clause. What is shown is that this grammatical behaviour clearly can be attributed to the properties of the elements positioned at the left of a wh-relative clause. Finally, a lexically-based analysis couched in the framework of HPSG is given that accounts for the data presented.
Introduction
(2011)
In spite of this long history, most work to date on the phonology-syntax interface in Bantu languages suffers from limitations, due to the range of expertise required: intonation, phonology, syntax. Quite generally, intonational studies on African languages are extremely rare. Most of the existing data has not been the subject of careful phonetic analysis, whether of the prosody of neutral sentences or of questions or other focus structures. There are important gaps in our knowledge of Bantu syntax which in turn limit our understanding of the phonology-syntax interface. Recent developments in syntactic theory have provided a new way of thinking about the type of syntactic information that phonology can refer to and have raised new questions: Do only syntactic constituent edges condition prosodic phrasing? Do larger domains such as syntactic phases, or even other factors, like argument and adjunct distinctions, play a role? Further, earlier studies looked at a limited range of syntactic constructions. Little research exists on the phonology of focus or of sentences with non-canonical word order in Bantu languages. Both the prosody and the syntax of complex sentences, questions and dislocations are understudied for Bantu languages. Our project aims to remedy these gaps in our knowledge by bringing together a research team with all the necessary expertise. Further, by undertaking the intonational, phonological and syntactic analysis of several languages we can investigate whether there is any correlation among differences in morphosyntactic and prosodic properties that might also explain differences in phrasing and intonation. It will also allow us to investigate whether there are cross-linguistically common prosodic patterns for particular morpho-syntactic structure.
Introduction
(2010)
The papers in this volume were originally presented at the Bantu Relative Clause workshop held in Paris on 8-9 January 2010, which was organized by the French-German cooperative project on the Phonology/Syntax Interface in Bantu Languages (BANTU PSYN). This project, which is funded by the ANR and the DFG, comprises three research teams, based in Berlin, Paris and Lyon. [...] This range of expertise is essential to realizing the goals of our project. Because Bantu languages have a rich phrasal phonology, they have played a central role in the development of theories of the phonology-syntax interface ever since the seminal work from the 1970s on Chimwiini (Kisseberth & Abasheikh 1974) and Haya (Byarushengo et al. 1976). Indeed, half the papers in Inkelas & Zec’s (1990) collection of papers on the phonology-syntax interface deal with Bantu languages. They have naturally played an important role in current debates comparing indirect and direct reference theories of the phonology-syntax interface. Indirect reference theories (e.g., Nespor & Vogel 1986; Selkirk 1986, 1995, 2000, 2009; Kanerva 1990; Truckenbrodt 1995, 1999, 2005, 2007) propose that phonology is not directly conditioned by syntactic information. Rather, the interface is mediated by phrasal prosodic constituents like Phonological Phrase and Intonation Phrase, which need not match any syntactic constituent. In contrast, direct reference theories (e.g., Kaisse 1985; Odden 1995, 1996; Pak 2008; Seidl 2001) argue that phrasal prosodic constituents are superfluous, as phonology can – indeed, must – refer directly to syntactic structure.
This paper deals with the possessive constructions — either connective or relative — in Mbochi (C25), a Bantu language spoken in Congo-Brazzaville. In Mbochi, as in most languages of the same group (C20), the underlying /CV-/ form of nominal prefixes never surfaces as such but is targeted by two main processes: consonantal dissimilation and vowel elision. Both processes are in complementary distribution and the alternations triggered by them may explain the surface forms of both connective and relative constructions. In order to provide the necessary background for the study of Mbochi relative clauses, the three subject markers of Mbochi are introduced and the main verbal suffixes are also discussed. Thereafter, a detailed presentation and analysis of the relative constructions is given. Finally, we discuss the prosody of these constructions, showing that relative clauses in Mbochi have no particular tonal markers and we propose a model involving superimposed boundary tones to account for their intonation.
This paper examines locative relatives in Durban Zulu. We show that locative relatives differ from nominal relatives crucially in prosodic phrasing as well as in resumptive pronoun marking. We propose that the best way to account for locative relatives in Zulu is to resort to the old style adjunction analysis of relative clauses, with an empty operator. The system we propose assumes that such an adjunction analysis co-exists with a head-raising analysis, which accounts for the nominal relative clauses.
We argue that Malagasy (and related W. Austronesian languages!) has a positive setting for a macro-parameter RICH VOICE MORPHOLOGY which builds complex predicates that code the theta role of their argument: S = [[PreN(6) + (X)] + DP]. Manifestations of this parameter are: (1) Case and theta role are assigned in situ in nuclear clauses with no movement or co-indexing to a topic position. (2) Relative Clauses (and other "extraction" structures) satisfy the "Subjects Only" constraint, again with no movement or indexing. (3) UTAH is freely violated, as theta role assignment derives from compositional semantic interpretation. Predicates resemble lexical Ns in assigning case directly to arguments without using Prepositions and in combining directly with Dets to form DPs that include tense and negation (Keenan 1995, 2000). The major Predicate-Argument type is modeled on the Noun+Possessor one, not the Verb+Object one.
The interaction between Syntax and Phonology has been one area of interesting empirical research and theoretical debate in recent years, particularly the question of the extent to which syntactic structure influences phonological phrasing. It has generally been observed that the edges of the major syntactic constituents (XPs) tend to coincide with prosodic phrase boundaries thus resulting in XPs like subject NPs, object NPs, Topic NPs, VPs etc. forming separate phonological phrases. Within Optimality Theoretic (OT) accounts, this fact has been attributed to a number of well-motivated general alignment constraints. Studies on relative clauses in Bantu and other languages have significantly contributed to this area of research inquiry where a number of parametric variations have been observed with regard to prosodic phrasing. In some languages, XPs which are heads of relatives form separate phonological phrases while in others they phrase with the relative clauses. This paper makes a contribution to this topic by discussing the phrasing of relatives in Ciwandya (a Bantu language spoken in Malawi and Tanzania). It shows that XPs which are heads of restrictive relative clauses phrase with their relative verbs, regardless of whether they are subjects, objects or other adjuncts. A variety of syntactic constructions are used to illustrate this fact. The discussion also confirms what has been generally observed in other Bantu languages concerning restrictive relatives with clefts and non-restrictive relative clauses. In both cases, the heads of the relatives phrase separately. The paper adopts an OT analysis which has been well articulated and defended in Cheng & Downing (2007, 2010, to appear) Downing & Mtenje (2010, 2011) to account for these phenomena in Ciwandya.
This paper takes a close look at the properties of Hungarian relative clauses that occur in the left periphery of the main clause, preceding a (pro)nominal associate. It will be shown that these left-peripheral relative clauses differ in many ways from relative clauses dislocated on the right periphery, as well as from relative clauses embedded under a (pro)nominal head. To capture the precise syntax of these left-peripheral clauses, these will be compared to ordinary left-dislocated items, with which they have some properties in common. Despite the surface similarities between the two, however, there are a few decisive aspects of behaviour, most notably, distributional properties and connectivity effects, which argue against taking left-peripheral relatives as cases of clausal left-dislocates in Hungarian. Instead, one is led to consider these as correlative clauses, on the basis of the properties they share with well-established correlatives in languages like Hindi.
All of the papers in the volume except one (Kaji) take up some aspect of relative clause construction in some Bantu language. Kaji’s paper aims to account for how Tooro (J12; western Uganda) lost phonological tone through a comparative study of the tone systems of other western Uganda Bantu languages. The other papers examine a range of ways of forming relative clauses, often including non-restrictive relatives and clefts, in a wide range of languages representing a variety of prosodic systems.
We focus in this paper on two prosodic phenomena in Chimwiini: vowel length and accent (or High tone). Vowel length is determined in part by a lexical distinction between long and short vowels, and also by various morphophonemic processes that derive long vowels. Accent is penult in the default case, but final under certain morphosyntactic conditions. In order to account for the distribution of vowel length and the location of accents in a Chimwiini sentence, it is necessary to segment sentences into a sequence of phonological phrases. This paper examines the phonological phrasing of both canonical relative clauses and what we refer to as "pseudo-relative" clauses. An account of relative clause phrasing is of critical importance in Chimwiini due to the extensive use of pseudo-relatives in the language. Close examination of the pseudo-relatives reveals that their phrasing is not exactly the same as the phrasing of canonical relative clauses.
Cet article propose une réflexion sur la manière dont la langue bàsàa (Bantu A 43 parlée au Cameroun) exprime la relativisation. En l’absence d’une classe grammaticale de pronoms relatifs la langue utilise la classe des démonstratifs. La stratégie démonstrative mise en place peut selon les cas, associer la classe des locatifs pour déterminer les degrés de définitude. La langue distingue également les relatives restrictives des relatives non-restrictives qui sont soit descriptives, soit emphatiques. Du point de vue prosodique, la fin de la relative en bàsàa coïncide avec une finale de Groupe Intonatif.