Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität; nur lokal zugänglich)
Refine
Year of publication
- 2009 (4) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (4)
Has Fulltext
- yes (4)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (4)
Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (4) (remove)
In mitochondrial respiration, the soluble protein cytochrome c accepts an electron from the membrane bound cytochrome bc1. The interaction between cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c is highly transient in nature, enabling turnover numbers greater than 160 s-1. Yeast cytochrome bc1 has been successfully crystallised with bound cytochrome c with the help of an antibody fragment (Lange and Hunte 2002; Solmaz and Hunte 2008). In all crystal structures of the complex, the homodimeric cytochrome bc1 binds only one cytochrome c, with the binding site located on subunit cytochrome c1. Univalent cytochrome c binding is correlated with conformational changes of the Rieske protein head domain and subunit QCR6p. The interface of the complex is small. The haem moieties are centrally located in a mainly non-polar contact site that includes a cation–! interaction and is surrounded by complementary charged residues. The crystal structure is in agreement with the general architecture of the interfaces of transient redox complexes and also reveals several interesting features unique to the cytochrome bc1. On the basis of the crystal structures, an extensive thermodynamic and kinetic characterisation of the interaction was carried out in this work to challenge the static snapshot of the bound proteins in the crystal structure as the relevant physiological electron transfer. The thermodynamic parameters of the interaction between the redox partners were determined using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The association constant for cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c in oxidised state under physiological ionic strength of 120 mM at 25 °C, was determined to be 5 " 103 M-1 by direct ITC titration. So, the partners interact with an affinity of 200 #M. In spite of the low affinity the complex has a life time ($ = 1/koff) of 5 #second, sufficiently long to enable the theoretically calculated electron transfer rates of 1.0 " 106 to 2.6 " 107 s%1 with a lifetime ($ = 1/rate) of 1-0.04 μseconds and experimentally determined rate of 7.7 " 104 s%1 with a lifetime of 13 μseconds. The low affinity makes it difficult to ascertain the stoichiometry of binding. The enthalpy of the interaction is endothermic, which is consistent with the nature of an interface where hydrophobic interactions are dominant. The enthalpy and entropy is 3.6 kJmol-1 and 83 kJmol-1K-1, respectively. The importance of key interface residues was also investigated. The role of the interface residue G89 of cytochrome c which might have a role in the dissociation of the complex has been probed by site-directed mutagenesis. The interface contains a cation-! interaction between F230 of cytochrome bc1 and R19 of cytochrome c, which is thought to provide the specificity to the interaction between the otherwise promiscuous partners. To analyse the role of this interaction pair in electron transfer, F230L and F230W mutants were used to measure direct electron transfer rates by flash photolysis and steady state kinetics. The findings indicate that another ! system can work as functional substitution of F230, while deleting the ! system has a deleterious effect on the complex formation. The inability of F230L to achieve the transient and steady state turnover rates as wild type protein indicates a scenario where the variant achieves an altered bound state with inefficient electron transfer pathways and higher edge-to-edge distance. The role of supernumerary subunit QCR6p in complex formation was investigated by steady state kinetics measurements. Subunit QCR6p does not interact directly with cytochrome c but is positioned in such a way that it could electrostatically steer cytochrome c in a reactive ensemble. The highly acidic and disordered N-terminus of QCR6p could interact with a patch of conserved lysine residues on cytochrome c. The role of subunit QCR6p has been assessed using QCR6p deleted cytochrome bc1 and a lysine variant of cytochrome c. The results show that QCR6p not only affects the kinetics of the interaction but is also important for the stability of cytochrome bc1. The kinetic and thermodynamic data obtained during this study provide evidence for the functional importance of non-catalytic cytochrome bc1 subunit QCR6p, show that the entropy driven interaction is indeed of low affinity and highly transient in nature and indicate that the interface is well suited to ensure the high turnover of the electron transfer chain where cytochrome c interacts with multiple partners using overlapping interfaces. The suggested role of the cation-! interaction as a highly specific interaction has been validated.
Um die Bedeutung bestimmter Neurone oder Klassen von Neuronen innerhalb von Nervensystemen zu untersuchen, sind Methoden, die eine Manipulation der Aktivität der Neurone in vivo erlauben, besonders nützlich. Die bisher zur Verfügung stehenden Methoden haben jedoch Einschränkungen in beispielsweise der Zelltypspezifität, der zeitlichen Präzision, der Reversibilität oder der Anwendbarkeit in frei beweglichen Tieren. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden optogenetische, d.h. auf der Expression lichtempfindlicher Proteine basierende Methoden entwickelt, um eine präzise Manipulation des Membranpotentials definierter Neurone durch Licht zu ermöglichen. Die Techniken wurden daraufhin zur Untersuchung z.B. der Neurotransmission sowie der Funktion kleiner Netzwerke im Nervensystem des Nematoden Caenorhabditis elegans verwendet. Die zelltypspezifische heterologe Expression des lichtgesteuerten Kationenkanals Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) aus der Grünalge Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ermöglichte es, Muskel- oder Nervenzellen der Nematoden durch blaue Beleuchtung innerhalb weniger Millisekunden zu depolarisieren. Dadurch ließen sich spezifische Verhaltensweisen in frei beweglichen Tieren auslösen. Dieser Ansatz wird in Zukunft die Untersuchung der Bedeutung einzelner Neurone innerhalb ihrer Schaltkreise deutlich erleichtern. So konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass die Photostimulation des propriorezeptiven Neurons DVA eine signifikante Erhöhung der mittleren Körperbiegungswinkel während der sinusförmigen Fortbewegung der Tiere zur Folge hatte. Außerdem wurde versucht, die Anwendbarkeit von ChR2 durch die gezielte Manipulation der subzellulären Lokalisation mittels Fusion mit speziellen Peptiden oder Proteinen zu erhöhen. Des Weiteren wurde eine zur Verwendung von ChR2 analoge Methode zur Hemmung von Neuronen durch Licht entwickelt. Hierfür wurde die lichtgetriebene Cl--Pumpe Halorhodopsin aus Natronomonas pharaonis (NpHR) zelltypspezifisch in C. elegans exprimiert. Durch Photoaktivierung von NpHR mit gelbem Licht war es möglich, Muskelzellen und cholinerge Neurone zu hyperpolarisieren und somit in ihrer Aktivität zu hemmen. Dies führte in frei beweglichen Tieren zu einer augenblicklichen Paralyse verbunden mit einer drastischen Reduktion der Schwimmfrequenz und einer Erhöhung der Körperlänge. Die Aktionsspektren von ChR2 und NpHR sind unterschiedlich genug, um eine unabhängige Photoaktivierung der beiden Proteine mit blauem und gelbem Licht zu ermöglichen. Dadurch konnte die Aktivität von Muskelzellen und cholinergen Neuronen nach Koexpression der beiden Proteine bidirektional kontrolliert werden. Es wurden somit Methoden entwickelt, die in vivo eine zeitlich äußerst präzise Manipulation des Membranpotentials definierter Neurone mit Licht verschiedener Wellenlängen ermöglichen. Die Beobachtung der dadurch induzierten Verhaltensänderungen erlaubt es, zuverlässige Aussagen über die Bedeutung einer Nervenzelle für die Ausprägung eines Verhaltens zu treffen und wird die Erforschung der Nervensysteme von C. elegans und anderen Modellorganismen deutlich vereinfachen. Schließlich wurden in dieser Arbeit optogenetische Methoden zur Untersuchung der synaptischen Übertragung an neuromuskulären Synapsen (neuromuscular junctions, NMJs) von C. elegans entwickelt. Hierfür wurde ChR2 in GABAergen oder cholinergen Neuronen exprimiert, um eine lichtgesteuerte Freisetzung des inhibitorischen Neurotransmitters GABA bzw. des exzitatorischen Neurotransmitters Acetylcholin (ACh) an NMJs zu erreichen. Die Methode wurde OptIoN getauft, ein Akronym für „Optogenetic Investigation of Neurotransmission“, also „optogenetische Untersuchung der Neurotransmission“. Die GABA-Freisetzung hatte ähnlich wie die NpHR-vermittelte Photoinhibition von Muskelzellen eine Reduktion der Schwimmfrequenz und Erhöhung der Körperlänge zur Folge. Die Ausschüttung von ACh verursachte hingegen starke Muskelkontraktionen verbunden mit einer Reduktion der Körperlänge. Die Änderungen der Körperlänge waren bei Mutanten mit verschiedenen Neurotransmissionsdefekten signifikant unterschiedlich im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. Außerdem kam es während längerer Beleuchtungsphasen in Mutanten mit defektem Recycling der synaptischen Vesikel (SV) zu einer verstärkten Abnahme der lichtinduzierten Effekte. OptIoN ermöglicht es dadurch erstmals, die Mechanismen des SV-Recyclings in C. elegans Verhaltensexperimenten zu untersuchen. In elektrophysiologischen Messungen ließen sich durch kurze Lichtpulse wiederholt und mit hoher Frequenz Neurotransmitter-spezifische postsynaptische Ströme evozieren. Diese Ströme waren in Mutanten mit gestörter SVExozytose reduziert und gingen bei wiederholter Stimulation in Mutanten mit defektem SVRecycling schneller zurück. Die Verwendung von OptIoN erleichtert die elektrophysiologische Untersuchung neuronaler Defekte und stellt erstmals eine Möglichkeit dar, Vorgänge der neuronalen Plastizität in dem genetischen Modellsystem C. elegans zu untersuchen. Das Potential von OptIoN zeigte sich unter anderem auch in der Identifizierung eines neuen, über metabotrope GABA-Rezeptoruntereinheiten vermittelten Mechanismus zur heterosynaptischen Hemmung cholinerger Neurone.
Orthopoxviruses are large DNA viruses that replicate within the cytoplasm of infected cells encoding over a hundred different proteins. The orthopoxviral 68k ankyrin‐like protein (68k‐ank) is highly conserved among orthopoxviruses, and this study aimed at elucidating the function of 68k‐ank. The 68k‐ank protein is composed of four ankyrin repeats (ANK) and an F‐box‐like domain; both motifs are known proteinprotein interaction domains. The F‐box is found in cellular F‐box proteins (FBP), crucial components of cellular E3 ubiquitin (Ub) ligases. With yeast‐two‐hybrid screens and subsequent co‐immunoprecipitation analyses, it was possible to identify S‐phase kinase‐associated protein 1a (Skp1a) as a cellular counterpart of 68k‐ank via binding to the F‐box‐like domain. Additionally, Cullin‐1 was co‐precipitated, suggesting the formation of a viral‐cellular SCF E3 Ub ligase complex. Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) ‐ being attenuated and unable to replicate in most mammalian cell lines due to a block in morphogenesis – nevertheless, expresses its complete genetic information attributing to its properties as promising vector vaccine. Conservation of 68k‐ank as the only ANK protein encoded by MVA implied a substantial role of this viral factor. Hence, its function in the viral life cycle was assessed by studying a 68k‐ank knock‐out MVA. A mutant phenotype manifested in nonpermissive mammalian cells characterized by a block succeeding viral early gene expression and by a reduced ability of the virus to shutoff host protein synthesis. Studies with MVA encoding a 68k‐ank F‐box‐like domain truncated protein revealed that viral‐cellular SCF complex formation and maintenance of viral gene expression are two distinct, unrelated functions fulfilled by 68k‐ank. Moreover, K1, a well‐described VACV host range factor of the ANK protein family, is able to complement 68k‐ank function. This suggests that gene expression of MVA putatively depends on the ANKs encoded in 68k‐ank. In addition to the important findings in vitro, first virulence studies with the mouse pox agent, ectromelia virus (ECTV) deleted of the 68k‐ank ortholog (C11) suggested that this factor contributes to ECTV virulence in vivo.
By adopting a variety of shapes, proteins can perform a wide number of functions in the cell, from being structural elements or enabling communication with the environment to performing complex enzymatic reactions needed to sustain metabolism. The number of proteins in the cell is limited by the number of genes encoding them. However, several mechanisms exist to increase the overall number of protein functions. One of them are post-translational modifications, i.e. covalent attachment of various molecules onto proteins. Ubiquitin was the first protein to be found to modify other proteins, and, faithful to its evocative name, it is involved in nearly all the activities of a cell. Ubiquitylation of proteins was believed for a long time only to be responsible for proteasomal degradation of modified proteins. However, with the discovery of various types of ubiquitylation, such as mono-, multiple- or poly-ubiquitylation, new functions of this post-translational modification emerged. Mono-ubiquitylation has been implicated in endocytosis, chromatin remodelling and DNA repair, while poly-ubiquitylation influences the half-life of proteins or modulates signal transduction pathways. DNA damage repair and tolerance are example of pathways extensively regulated by ubiquitylation. PCNA, a protein involved in nearly all types of DNA transaction, can undergo both mono- and poly-ubiquitylation. These modifications are believed to change the spectrum of proteins that interact with PCNA. Monoubiquitylation of PCNA is induced by stalling of replication forks when replicative polymerases (pols) encounter an obstacle, such as DNA damage or tight DNA-protein complexes. It is believed that monoubiquitylation of PCNA stimulates the exchange between replicative pols to one of polymerases that can synthesize DNA across various lesions, a mechanism of damage tolerance known as translesion synthesis (TLS). Our work has helped to understand why monoubiqutylation of PCNA favours this polymerase switch. We have identified two novel domains with the ability to bind Ub non-covalently. These domains are present in all the members of Y polymerases performing TLS, and were named Ub-binding zinc finger (UBZ) (in polη and polκ) and Ub-binding motif (UBM) (in polι and Rev1). We have shown that these domains enable Y polymerases to preferentially gain access to PCNA upon stalling of replication, when the action of translesion polymerases is required. While the region of direct interaction between Y pols and PCNA had been known (BRCT domain in Rev1 and PIP box motif (PIP) in three others members), we propose that Ub-binding domains (UBDs) in translesion Y pols enhance the PIP- or BRCT-domain-mediated interaction between these polymerases and PCNA by binding to the Ub moiety attached onto PCNA. Following these initial studies, we have also discovered that Y polymerases themselves undergo monoubiquitylation and that their UBDs mediate this modification. This auto-ubiquitylation is believed to lead to an intramolecular interaction between UBD and Ub attached in cis onto the UBD-containing protein. We have mapped monoubiquitylation sites in polη in the C-terminal portion of the protein containing the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and the PIP box. Beside PIP, the NLS motif is also involved in direct interaction of polη with PCNA. Based on these findings, we propose that monoubiquitylation of either NLS or PIP masks them from potential interaction with PCNA. Lastly, using several functional assays, we have demonstrated the importance of all these three motifs in the C-terminus of polη (UBZ, NLS and PIP) for efficient TLS. We have also constructed a mimic of monoubiquitylated polη by genetically fusing polη with Ub. Interestingly, this chimera is deficient in TLS as compared to the wild-type protein. Altogether, these studies demonstrate that the C-terminus of polη constitutes a regulatory module involved in multiple-site interaction with monoubiquitylated PCNA, and that monoubiquitylation of this region inhibits the interaction between polη and PCNA. Our work has also revealed that the UBDs of Y pols as well as of other proteins implicated in DNA damage repair and tolerance, such as the Werner helicase-interacting protein 1 (Wrnip1), are required for their proper sub-nuclear localization. All these proteins localize to discrete focal structures inside the nucleus and mutation of their UBDs results in inability to accumulate in these foci. Interestingly, by exchanging UBDs between different proteins we have learned that each UBD seems to have a distinct functional role, surprisingly not limited to Ubbinding ability. In fact, swapping the UBZ of Wrnip1 with the UBM of polι abolished the localization of Wrnip1 to foci despite preserving the Ub-binding ability of the chimeric protein. In summary, this work provides an overview of how post-translation modification of proteins by Ub can regulate several DNA transactions. Firstly, key regulators (e.g. PCNA) can be differentially modified by Ub. Secondly, specialized UBDs (e.g. UBM, UBZ) embedded only in a subset of proteins act as modules able to recognize these modifications. Thirdly, by means of mediating auto-ubiquitylation, UBDs can modulate the behaviour of host proteins by allowing for either in cis or in trans Ub-UBD interactions.