Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität; nur lokal zugänglich)
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Ribosome biogenesis is best understood in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In human or mammalian ribosome biogenesis, it has been shown that basic principles are conserved to yeast, but additional features have been reported. Our understanding about the interplay between proteins and RNA in human ribosome biogenesis is far from complete.
The present study focused on the analysis of the human ribosome biogenesis co-factors PWP2, EMG1 and Exportin 5 (XPO5) to understand the degree of conservation of ribosome biogenesis. The proteins were characterized in respect to their localization and interaction partners. For the early 90S co-factor, PWP2, it was possible to pull down and identify the human UTP-B complex with MALDI mass spectrometry. Besides the orthologues of the members of this complex known in yeast (TBL3, WDR3, WDR36, UTP6, UTP18), the human UTP-B complex is not only conserved from yeast to humans, but contains also additional components, like the DEAD-box RNA helicase DDX21, which lacks a yeast orthologue. DDX21 was localized to the nucleus, assembled to the native UTP-B complex and co-precipitated also with other UTP-B complex members, presumably extending the functions of this complex in ribosome biogenesis.
This phenomenon was also observed for the 90S co-factor EMG1, an RNA methyltransferase, whose mutant form causes the Bowen-Conradi syndrome, if aspartic acid is mutated to glycine at position 86. This study revealed that the mutant, EMG1-D86G, clearly lost its nucleolar localization and co-precipitated to histones for unknown reasons.
A participation of the nuclear export receptor XPO5 in human ribosome biogenesis was shown in this study. Pulldown analysis, sucrose density gradients and UV crosslinking and analysis of cDNAs of XPO5 revealed the involvement of XPO5 in pre-60S subunit maturation. Moreover, besides the known pre-miRNAs and tRNAs as substrates for nuclear export, XPO5 crosslinked to snoRNAs. XPO5 was further demonstrated to interact with the miRNA Let-7a, which has an important regulatory function for MYC, a transcription factor required for ribosome biogenesis.
All results support a role of these proteins in human ribosome biogenesis and therefore it seems that the biogenesis of ribosomes in human cells requires additional components, like DDX21 and XPO5.
Due to recent technical developments, it became evident that the mammalian transcriptome is much more complex than originally expected. Alternative splicing(AS) and the transcription of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are two phenomenas which have been greatly underestimated in their frequency. Nowadays it is accepted that almost every gene has at least one alternative isoform and the number of lncRNAs exceeds the one of protein-coding genes.
We built user-friendly web interfaces which can process Affymetrix GeneChip Exon 1.0 ST Arrays (exon arrays) and GeneChip Gene 1.0 ST Arrays (gene arrays)for the analysis of alternative splicing events. Results are presented with detailed annotation information and graphics to identify splice events and to facilitate biological validations. Based on two studies using exon arrays, we show how our tools were used to profile genome-wide splicing changes under silencing of Jmjd6 and under hypoxic conditions. Since gene arrays are not intended for AS analysis originally, we demonstrated their applicability by profiling alternative splicing events during embryonic heart development.
To measure lncRNAs expressions with exon arrays, we completely re-annotation all probes and built a lncRNA specific annotation. To demonstrate the applicability of exon arrays in combination with our annotation, we profiled the expression of tens of thousands of lncRNAs. Further, our custom annotation allows for a detailed inspection of lncRNAs and to distinguish between isoforms, as we validated by RTPCR.
To allow for a general usage to the research community, we integrated the annotation in an easy-to-use web interface, which provides various helpful features for the analysis of lncRNAs.
Im Zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS) kommunizieren neuronale Synapsen über eine Kombination von chemischen und elektrischen Signalen, die in ihrer Umgebung eine spezifische Komposition von Ionen benötigen. Um eine strenge Kontrolle des ZNS-Milieus zu gewährleisten, hat sich in Säugetieren eine endotheliale Blut-Hirn-Schranke (BHS) entwickelt. Die BHS limitiert den parazellulären Molekül Transport und wird von den Kapillargefässen des Gehirns gebildet, wobei die physische Barrier von den Tight Junctions (TJs) des vaskulären Endothels generiert wird. Das Gehirnendothel ist Teil einer neurovaskulären Einheit (NVE), zu der auch Perizyten (PZ), Astrozyten (AZ), Mikroglia und Interneurone zählen. Fehlkommunikation oder defekte zelluläre Komponenten in der NVE führen in der Regel zu Störungen in der BHS Funktion und können schwerwiegende neuronale Erkrankungen zur Folge haben.
Vor einigen Jahren haben wir und andere Forschungsgruppen herausgefunden, dass der Wnt/β-Catenin Signalweg essentiell für die Vaskularisierung des Gehirns während der Embryonalentwicklung ist und darüber hinaus auch eine bedeutende Rolle in der Induktion der BHS spielt. Des Weiteren konnte im Zebrafischmodell eine Aktivierung des kanonischen Wnt Signalweges auch im adulten Organismus nachgewiesen werden. Allerdings ist die Quelle der Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren bis dato unbekannt. Der Wnt Signalweg ist eine hoch konservierte und komplexe zelluläre Signalkaskade, die in allen mehrzelligen Organismen vorkommt. Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren sind sekretierte, hydrophobe Signalmoleküle, die sowohl über lange als auch kurze Strecken entweder den β-Catenin-abhängingen („kanonischen“) oder β-Catenin-unabhängingen („nicht-kanonischen“) Wnt Signalweg aktivieren können.
Da die meisten ZNS Erkrankungen mit einem Zusammenbruch der BHS-Funktion assoziiert sind, ist die Forschung bestrebt die Mechanismen, die der Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung der BHS zugrunde liegen, zu ermitteln und zu verstehen. Das Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit war es herauszufinden, ob AZ Wnts produzieren und ob deren Wirkung auf das Gehirnendothel an der Aufrechterhaltung der BHS beteiligt ist. Zu diesem Zweck, habe ich ein in vitro BHS Kokultivierungs-Modellsystem etabliert das erstmalig ausschliesslich auf der Verwendung von murinen AZ und Gehirnendothelzellen basiert. Zu Beginn der Studie wurden sowohl primäre AZ als auch eine murine Gehirnendothel-zelllinie (MBE) bezüglich ihrer zell-spezifischen Eigenschaften charakterisiert. Dabei konnte belegt werden, dass sowohl die primären AZ als auch die MBE Zelllinie, aufgrund ihrer Proteinexpressionsprofile als repräsentative Vertreter ihres Zelltyps eingestuft werden können. Die darauffolgenden Untersuchungen konnten zeigen, dass primäre AZ über mehrere Passagen hinweg fast alle 19 Wnt Liganden auf mRNA Ebene exprimierten. Ferner konnte in primären Gehirnendothelzellen und zwei Gehirnendothelzelllinien die korrespondierenden Frizzled (FZD) Rezeptoren und low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) Korezeptoren nachgewiesen werden. Dieser Befund legte Nahe, dass AZ und Gehirnendothelzellen die basalen Eigenschaften besitzen, um über den Wnt Signalweg miteinander zu kommunizieren. Die Stimulation von pMBEs mit Astrozyten konditioniertem Medium (AKM) induzierte die Hochregulation von Claudin-3 einem bekannten kanonischen Wnt Zielgens. Interessanterweise konnte diese Regulation teilweise durch die Zugabe von dickkopf 1 (Dkk1), einem Wnt/β-Catenin Antagonisten, inhibiert werden.
Um die physiologische Rolle der Wnt Liganden zu bestimmen, habe ich mir die Eigenschaft des universellen Sekretionsmechanismus der Wachstumsfaktoren, welcher von dem Transmembranprotein evenness interrupted (Evi) abhängig ist, zu Nutze gemacht. Die Verpaarung von Evifl/fl mit hGFAP-Cre Mäusen erlaubt die AZ-spezifische Deletion des Evi Proteins (Evi KO), was zur Folge hat, dass die Astrozyten der Nachkommen keine Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren sekretieren können.
In vitro führte der Verlust von Wnts in AKM zu einer teilweisen Delokalisierung von Junction Proteinen. Während die Kokultivierung mit Evi WT AZ einen straken Anstieg im TEER und reduzierte Permeabilitätsmesswerte induzierten, konnten diese pro-BHS Eigenschaften bei Evi KO AZ nicht beobachtet werden. Diese Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass Wnts sekretiert von AZ den BHS Phenotyp positive beeinflussen, indem sie die Zell-Zell-Verbindung verstärken, was wiederum zu erhöhtem Zellwiderstand und reduzierter transzellulärer Permeabilität führt. Die Analyse des in vivo Phänotyps von Evi KO Mäusen ergab, dass mit fortschreitendem, postnatalem Alter makroskopisch erkennbare zerebrale Blutungen auftraten. Ausserdem konnte ich zeigen, dass eine Subpopulation von Blutgefässen Malformationen aufwies, die mit reduzierter Astrozytenendfuss-Assoziierung einhergingen.
Das Wissen um die Beteiligung des Wnt Signalweges an der Regulation der BHS auch im adulten Organismus kann in Zukunft von wichtiger Bedeutung sein, da es potentielle therapeutische Anwendungen ermöglicht.
ß1-integrins are essential for angiogenesis but the mechanisms regulating integrin function in endothelial cells (EC) and their contribution to angiogenesis remain elusive. BRAG2 is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small Arf-GTPases Arf5 and Arf6. The role of BRAG2 in EC and angiogenesis and the underlying molecular mechanisms remains unclear. siRNA-mediated BRAG2-silencing reduced EC angiogenic sprouting and migration. BRAG2-siRNA-transfection differentially affected a5ß1- and aVß3-integrin function: specifically, BRAG2-silencing increased focal/fibrillar adhesions and EC adhesion on ß1-integrin-ligands (fibronectin and collagen), while reducing the adhesion on the aVß3-integrin-ligand, vitronectin. Consistent with these results, BRAG2-silencing enhanced surface expression of a5ß1-integrin, while reducing surface expression of aVß3-integrin. Mechanistically, BRAG2 mediated recycling of aVß3-integrins and endocytosis of ß1-integrins and specifically of the active/matrix bound a5ß1-integrin present in fibrillar/focal adhesions (FA), suggesting that BRAG2 contributes to the disassembly of FA via ß1-integrin-endocytosis. Arf5 and Arf6 are promoting downstream of BRAG2 angiogenic sprouting, ß1-integrin-endocytosis and the regulation of FA. In vivo silencing of the BRAG2-orthologues in zebrafish embryos using morpholinos perturbed vascular development. Furthermore, in vivo intravitral injection of plasmids containing BRAG2-shRNA reduced pathological ischemia-induced retinal and choroidal neovascularization. These data reveals that BRAG2 is essential for developmental and pathological angiogenesis by promoting EC sprouting through regulation of adhesion by mediating ß1-integrin internalization and associates for the first time the process of ß1-integrin endocytosis with angiogenesis.
Eine Infektion mit dem Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) kann bei 5-10 % der infizierten Erwachsenen und 70-90 % der infizierten Kinder chronisch verlaufen. Trotz einer verfügbaren Impfung gegen die Erkrankung sind heute nach Angaben der WHO weltweit etwa 350 Mio. Menschen chronisch HBV-infiziert [Lupberger and Hildt, 2007, Hollinger and Liang, 2001]. In 5-10 % der Fälle führt eine chronische Infektion zu einer Leberfibrose und Zirrhose, welche letztlich zur Ausbildung eines hepatozellulären Karzinoms (HCC) führen kann. HCCs sind die dritthäufigste karzinomassoziierte Todesursache weltweit [Blum, 2005]. Um Therapien gegen eine HBV-Infektion und das damit erhöhte Risiko einer HCC-Entstehung entwickeln zu können, müssen die einzelnen Schritte des HBV-Replikationszyklus verstanden sein. Wesentliche Schritte der frühen Infektionsphase, insbesondere der Rezeptor bzw. Rezeptorkomplex, welcher den Zelleintritt des Virus vermittelt sowie der Transport des Virusgenoms in den Zellkern, sind bisher noch unklar. Auch der Exportprozess und die Freisetzung der Viruspartikel ist bisher noch nicht im Detail verstanden. Es ist jedoch bekannt, dass die Viruspartikel unter Nutzung der zellulären ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport)-Maschinerie aus der Zelle freigesetzt werden [Lambert et al., 2007]. Auf der Suche nach Faktoren, die in diese Vorgänge involviert sind, konnte in dieser Arbeit das vesikeltransportassoziierte Protein α-Taxilin identifiziert werden. Der Einfluss von HBV auf die α-Taxilin-Bildung und seine mögliche Beteiligung am viralen Export wurden dabei näher charakterisiert. In HBV-positiven Zellen konnte in vivo und in vitro eine signifikante Steigerung der α-Taxilin-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Diese wird hierbei durch die HBV-Proteine HBx und LHBs über den Raf/Mek/Erk-Signalweg induziert [Glatzel, 2011]. Mithilfe von knockdown-Experimenten konnte beobachtet werden, dass α-Taxilin für den Export der Viruspartikel, nicht aber für den Export subviraler Partikel (SVPs) essentiell ist. Der Export der Virionen findet hierbei über das ESCRT-System statt. Den HBV-Strukturproteinen fehlen jedoch die für die Interaktion mit dem ESCRT-System essentiellen late-Domänen. Die Proteinstruktur von α-Taxilin dagegen weist diese late-Domänen auf. In dieser Arbeit konnte diese interaktionsvermittelnde Funktion von α-Taxilin zwischen dem Virus und dem ESCRT-System charakterisiert werden. Über eine Interaktion von α-Taxilin mit dem viralen LHBs-Protein auf der einen Seite und der tsg101-Komponente des ESCRT-I-Komplexes auf der anderen Seite agiert α-Taxilin als eine Art Linker zwischen dem ESCRT-System und HBV.
Darüber hinaus wurde Annexin A5 als zellulärer Interaktionspartner für α-Taxilin identifiziert [Röttger, 2011]. Es dirigiert α-Taxilin in einer Art shuttle-Funktion auf die Zellmembran suszeptibler Zellen und bindet es an deren Zelloberfläche. Diese Exposition von α-Taxilin nimmt während der Dedifferenzierung in Korrelation mit dem Suszeptibilitätsverlust primärer Hepatozyten ab. Eine Maskierung von α-Taxilin durch eine vorherige Inkubation der Zellen mit α-Taxilin-spezifischen Antikörpern konnte die Bindung und die Aufnahme der Viren inhibieren. Überexpressionsstudien bestätigten die essentielle Rezeptorfunktion von α-Taxilin. Die verstärkte Produktion von α-Taxilin führte zur Suszeptibilität der Zellen. Auch die Speziesspezifität der Bindung zwischen humanem α-Taxilin und HBV konnte in einem Co-Immunpräzipitationsexperiment mit den rezeptorbindenden Domänen von HBV, WHV und DHBV identifiziert werden.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte somit zum ersten Mal eine Rezeptorfunktion von α-Taxilin bei der Aufnahme von HBV in die Wirtszelle nachgewiesen werden. Darüber hinaus schreiben die in dieser Arbeit gemachten Beobachtungen α-Taxilin eine essentielle Funktion für die Vermittlung des ESCRT-abhängigen Exports der Virionen aus der Zelle zu. Die hierbei gewonnen Erkenntnisse sind von hoher Relevanz für die weitere Erforschung der HBV-assoziierten Pathogenese und die Etablierung eines in vivo Infektions-Modells.
The biogenesis and function of photosynthetically active chloroplasts relies on the import of thousands of nuclear encoded proteins via the coordinated actions of two multiprotein translocon machineries in the outer and inner envelope membrane. Trafficking of preproteins across the soluble compartment of InterMembrane Space (IMS) is currently envisioned to be facilitated by an IMS complex composed of outer envelope proteins Toc64 and Toc12, a soluble IMS component, Tic22 and an IMS-localized Hsp70. Among them, currently Tic22 is the only component that stands undisputed in terms of its existence. Having two closely related homologs in A. thaliana, their biochemical and functional characterization was still lacking. A critical analysis of Tic22 knockout mutants displayed growth phenotype reminiscent of ppi1, the mutant of Toc33. However, both the genes have similar expression patterns with no clear preference for photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic tissues, which explained the absence of a detectable phenotype in single mutants. In addition, transgenic complementation study with either of the homolog affirmed the identical localization of both proteins in the IMS which characterizes the two homologs as functionally redundant. Based on the pale-yellow phenotype exhibited by the double mutant plants, an attempt to analyze the import capacity of a stromal substrate in the double mutant revealed threefold reduction when compared to wild-type acknowledging the essential role of Tic22 in the import mechanism. Initially, Tic22 was identified together with another protein, Tic20, which has been heavily discussed as a protein conducting channel in the inner membrane. Despite being characterized, in A. thaliana, two out of four homologs of Tic20 are differentially localized with one being additionally localized in mitochondria and the other, exclusively residing in the thylakoids.
According to in silico analysis, for all the Tic20 proteins, a four-helix transmembrane topology was predicted. Accordingly, its topology was mapped by employing the recently established selfassembling GFP-based in vivo experiments. Astonishingly, the expression of one of the inner envelope localized Tic20 homolog enforces inner membrane proliferation affecting the shape and organization of the membrane. Therefore this study focuses on analyzing the effects of high envelope protein concentrations on membrane structures, which together with the existing results, an imbalance in the lipid to protein ratio and a possible role of signaling pathway regulating membrane biogenesis is discussed.
Durch RNAinterferenz (RNAi) läßt sich die Expression eines beliebigen Gens spezifisch unterdrücken. Dafür müssen in das Zytoplasma kurze, doppelsträngige RNA Moleküle (siRNA bzw. shRNA) eingebracht werden, die teilweise komplementäre Sequenzen zu dem Zielgen aufweisen. Um siRNAs mit einer hohen Effizienz und Kopienzahl in die Zielzelle einzubringen, wurden Transfersysteme unterschiedlicher Art entwickelt. Nicht-virale Transfersysteme können nur einen transienten Effekt auslösen - ein Umstand, der für Langzeitstudien eine mehrfache Transfektion bedingt. Zur Lösung dieses Problems wurden retrovirale Vektorsysteme entwickelt, die durch Integration der shRNA-Expressionskassette in das zelluläre Genom eine stabile Unterdrückung eines Zielgens erreichen können. Insbesondere für präklinische Studien in vivo ist jedoch ein System mit erhöhter Transferrate wünschenswert, um in möglichst vielen Zielzellen einen RNAi-Effekt zu bewirken. Sliva et al. konnten zeigen, dass das Murine Leukämie Virus (MLV) theoretisch diese Anforderung erfüllt. Dafür wurde eine shRNA-Expressionskassette in das Virusgenom eingefügt und in vitro ein RNAi-Effekt nachgewiesen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde dieses System nun durch die Verwendung von microRNA-adaptierten shRNAs (shRNAmir) verbessert. In mehreren Publikationen wurde bestätigt, dass shRNAs, die endogenen microRNAs nachempfunden sind, eine höhere Effizienz und niedrigere Toxizität aufweisen. Zunächst wurde die für die genetische Stabilität optimale Orientierung der shRNAmir-Expressionskassette bestimmt. Das Konstrukt in reverser Orientierung wies eine Deletion in der shRNAmir Promotersequenz auf, die wahrscheinlich durch Interferenz mit dem 5’LTR Promoter entstanden ist. Mit dem genetisch stabilen Viruskonstrukt wurden Experimente zur Reduktion der Expression von Markergenen durchgeführt, um die Effizienz der RNAi-Aktivität leicht zu quantifizieren. Dafür wurden humane Fibrosarkom (HT1080) Zellen infiziert, die eGFP oder Luziferase stabil exprimieren.
Mit eGFP- und Luziferase-spezifischen shRNAmir-Expressionskassetten konnte nach Infektion eine Herunterregulation von eGFP auf etwa 20 % und für Luziferase auf unter 10% beobachtet werden. Das Kontrollvirus, das eine unspezifische shRNAmir kodiert, hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Expression beider Markerproteine. Die Kinetik mit der die Markerproteine herrunterreguliert wurden, war abhängig von der Virusdosis. Die Virusdosis hatte aber keinen Einfluß auf die Stärke des RNAi-Effekts, der nach Infektion aller Zellen festgestellt werden konnte. Dieses Ergebnis entspricht der Erwartung an ein replikatives Transfersystems, das je nach applizierter Virusdosis unterschiedlich schnell RNAi in der Zellkultur ausbreitet und induziert. Die Anwendbarkeit dieses RNAi-Transfersystems auch für endogene Gene wurde mit MMP14-spezifischen shRNAmirs gezeigt. Nach Infektion von HT1080 Zellen mit den entsprechenden Viren in HT1080 Zellen konnte eine verringerte Menge an MMP14 mRNA und Protein nachgewiesen werden. Dies konnte funktionell durch eine verringerte Menge an intermediärem MMP2 und durch eine reduzierte Invasivität bestätigt werden. Zudem war die Fähigkeit dieser Zellen subkutane Tumore zu bilden stark eingeschränkt.
Um die Anwendbarkeit dieses Systems für in vivo Applikationen zu zeigen, wurde in Mäuse, die Luziferase-exprimierenden Tumoren trugen, MLV-shLuc oder das Kontrollvirus systemisch appliziert. 21 Tage nach Virusgabe konnte in den Tumoren von MLV-shLuc infizierten Mäusen eine Abnahme der Luziferaseaktivität auf 15 % nachgewiesen werden. Auch in Mäusen, die systemisch applizierte Tumorzellen erhielten, konnte eine Tendenz von RNAi-vermittelter Luziferase-Reduktion beobachtet werden.
Damit wurde in dieser Arbeit ein neuartiges RNAi-Transfersystem geschaffen, das in der Lage ist, auch in vivo einen starken und lang andauernden RNAi-Effekt auszulösen. Die Einzigartigkeit besteht in der Kombination von shRNAmir und Replikations-kompetenten Retroviren. Dadurch konnte eine erweiterte Transferrate von shRNAmir in Tumorzellen erreicht werden, so dass nun Genfunktionsstudien mit sehr hoher Aussagekraft möglich sind.
The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the westernized countries during the past decades. Clinical manifestations of food allergies involve the skin (e.g. atopic dermatitis), the respiratory tract (e.g. rhinitis, and asthma), the ocular area (e.g. conjunctivitis), the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. food-protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome, food-induced proctocolitis, and eosinophilic gastroenteropathies), and the cardiovascular system (e.g. anaphylaxis). A curative treatment of these diseases has not been established yet. Oral immunotherapy (OIT) has gained attention as a potential therapy for food allergies. Continuous feeding of allergenic diet applied in the model described here mirrors to a certain extent an OIT treatment. It might be therefore useful to investigate efficacy and safety of OIT pre-clinically.
Mouse models have been widely used to analyse novel treatment approaches. Unfortunately, most of them have focussed on IgE-mediated hyperreactivity. Only a limited number of mouse models presenting mixed IgE- and non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal symptoms and inflammation upon allergen-challenge are available. To study the mechanisms underlying the induction of food-induced gastrointestinal inflammation and subsequent oral tolerance induction, a mouse model of food-induced gastrointestinal allergy was established. BALB/c mice were sensitised with Ovalbumin (OVA) plus ALUM and subsequently challenged by feeding a diet containing egg white (EW diet). During the first seven days on EW diet, OVA-sensitised mice (OVA/ALUM EW mice) developed gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. weight loss, ruffed fur, soft stool and less mobility) and inflammation in the small intestines accompanied by a strong induction of OVA-specific IgE antibodies and mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMCP-1). Proliferation of CD4+ T cells from spleen of OVA/ALUM EW mice was reduced compared controls. The result indicated that feeding EW diet induced T cell tolerance systemically. In contrast, CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice showed stronger proliferation upon OVA stimulation in vitro than mice OVA-sensitised but fed a conventional diet, indicating that tolerance was not induced by short-term EW diet. Histological analysis of the small intestinal tissue of OVA/ALUM EW mice revealed strong inflammation present in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum at this time point.
Interestingly, the observed symptoms in OVA/ALUM EW mice resolved spontaneously after 7 days on EW diet, if the feeding was continued. In the next steps the CD4+ T cell-mediated immune response after 28 days continuous EW diet was assessed and revealed that tolerance was induced systemically as well as locally. This was shown by reduced proliferation and cytokine secretion of CD4+ T cells from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice after long-term EW diet. However, the inflammation in the jejunum was aggravated instead of resolved at this time point of allergenic diet. Our results suggest that application of OIT in food-allergic patients with gastrointestinal inflammation may need to be reconsidered, since continuous administration of allergenic food may aggravate inflammation in the local tissue. Interestingly, only the jejunum was affected by a worsened condition, whereas duodenum and ileum resolved inflammation. In accordance to the observed jejunal inflammation mMCP-1 levels in the sera were not changed. Allergen-specific IgE levels did not reach baseline level after long-term EW diet, although they were reduced compared to levels in mice after 7 days on EW diet. This result suggests that residual OVA-specific IgE antibodies would promote the jejunal inflammation by sustained activation of mast cells. Furthermore, our results suggest that IL-4 produced by activated Th2 cells could be an effector molecule to induce intestinal inflammation.
The second part of this thesis was aimed at verifying the hypothesis that IgE-mediated mast cell activation is a major effector mechanism in induction of chronic inflammation induced by long-term EW diet. For that mice deficient for FcεRI, a high affinity IgE receptor, were used. These mice were sensitised with OVA and fed EW diet as described for WT mice. Although FcεRI-deficient mice showed an intact Th2 immunity with IgE production, weight loss in the receptor-deficient mice was moderately induced by EW diet compared to WT mice, suggesting that this clinical symptom during the acute phase of allergic response is associated with IgE-mediated mechanisms. Surprisingly, the deficient mice presented comparable intestinal inflammation on day seven of EW diet as WT mice did. However, if EW diet was continued, recovery of intestinal inflammation was observed in FcεRI-deficient mice in contrast to WT mice. These results suggest that the induction of intestinal inflammation is not IgE-dependent. Nevertheless, this does not rule out a potential role of mast cells in the inflammation, because of their IgE-independent activation pathways. It also suggests the involvement of T cell-mediated mechanisms during induction of jejunal inflammation. Interestingly, the aggravated inflammation seen after long-term EW diet in WT mice seems to be IgE-dependent, considering that it was not observed in FcεRI-deficient mice. The elevated number of mast cells in the intestine of WT mice further led to a hypothesis that their continuous activation might be responsible for the chronification of allergic inflammation observed after long-term EW diet. In the context of OIT it further implies that IgE might be a poor prognostic factor for recovery of intestinal inflammation during and after an OIT treatment. In the third part of this thesis regulatory mechanisms employed by the immune system were analysed. Initial results from CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN from OVA/ALUM EW mice showed elevated IL-10 levels in their supernatants after short-term EW diet. IL-10-deficient mice were used to analyse the effect of this immunosuppressive cytokine in the mouse model presented here. However, IL-10-deficient mice tend to develop a strong Th1-dominated immune response. Nevertheless, an accelerated weight loss and slight inflammation of the jejunum was observed after short-term EW diet. Analysis of OVA-specific proliferation and cytokine production CD4+ T cells from Spleen and MLN of IL-10-deficient mice on EW diet suggested that systemic as well as local tolerance was induced after short-term and long-term EW diet feeding, respectively. The result suggests that IL-10 is dispensable for induction of T cell tolerance in our mouse model.
However, the presence of functionally active Tregs was observed during this study in WT mice fed short-term EW diet, suggesting that Tregs might have an important role in regulating the systemic or local immune response. T cell deletion as an alternative immune regulatory mechanism was also observed. Additionally, the efficacy of continuous EW diet (mirroring to a certain extent an OIT treatment) in induction of permanent tolerance was assessed. In OVA-sensitised WT mice continuous allergenic diet was stopped after resolution of clinical symptoms and reintroduced after a defined period on conventional diet. Evaluating the weight development showed that reintroduction of EW diet induced weight loss again, but not as pronounced as seen after short-term EW diet. Also the CD4+ T cell-mediated response was elevated again upon allergen stimulation in vitro. The results suggested that permanent tolerance was not induced in the chosen feeding regime.
The mouse model established and analysed here was used to investigate inflammatory and regulatory mechanisms underlying food-induced gastrointestinal allergy. It presents clinical symptoms and intestinal inflammation (Burggraf et al., 2011). This model is easy to be reproduced in different laboratories, and is useful for testing novel therapy approaches (Schülke et al., 2011; Bohnen et al., 2013). It further provides an opportunity to investigate basic mechanisms underlying OIT. This therapy approach is currently extensively investigated and our mouse model would help to understand the therapeutic mechanism of OIT.
Nervous system development requires a sequence of processes such as neuronal migration, the development of dendrites and dendritic spines and the formation of synapses. The extracellular matrix protein Reelin plays an important role in these processes, Reelin regulates for example the migration of neurons from proliferative zones to their target positions in the brain. As a consequence, layered structures are formed in the neocortex, the hippocampus and cerebellum (Lambert de Rouvroit et al., 1999). Reelin exerts its functions by binding to two transmembrane receptors, apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2) and very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR). This binding causes phosphorylation of the intracellular adapter protein Disabled-1 (Dab1) (D’Arcangelo et al., 1999) via activation of Src-family kinases (SFKs) (Bock and Herz, 2003), leading to cytoskeletal reorganization which enables cell migration and morphological changes (Lambert de Rouvroit and Goffinet, 2001). Since ApoER2 and VLDLR do not possess intrinsic kinase activity to activate SFKs, the existence of a co-receptor was suggested. EphrinBs are transmembrane ligands for Eph receptors and have signaling capabilities required for axon guidance (Cowan et al., 2004), dendritic spine maturation (Segura et al., 2007) and synaptic plasticity (Essmann et al., 2008; Grunwald et al., 2004). As stimulation of cultured cortical neurons with soluble EphB receptors causes recruitment of SFKs to ephrinB-containing membrane patches and SFK activation (Palmer et al., 2002), we investigated whether ephrinB ligands would be the missing co-receptors in the Reelin signaling pathway functioning during neuronal migration, dendritic spine maturation and synaptic plasticity. We found that the extracellular part of ephrinBs directly binds to Reelin and that ephrinBs interact with Dab1, phospho-Dab1, ApoER2 and VLDLR. EphrinB3 is localized in the same neurons as ApoER2 and Dab1 in the cortex and hippocampus, and in the cerebellum ephrinB2 is detected in neurons that express Dab1. To investigate the requirement of ephrinBs for neuronal migration, triple knockout mice lacking all ephrinB ligands were analyzed. The cortical layering of ephrinB1, B2, B3 knockout brains is inverted, showing the outside-in pattern typical for the reeler cortex. The hippocampus and cerebellum of triple knockout mice also exhibit reeler-like malformations, although less penetrant than the cortical defects. Dab1 phosphorylation is impaired in mice lacking ephrinB3 and this effect is strongly enhanced in neurons lacking all ephrin ligands. Moreover, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling induces Dab1phosphorylation in reeler primary neurons. In agreement with an important regulatory function of ephrinBs in Reelin signaling, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling is even able to rescue reeler defects in cortical layering in organotypic slice cultures. In summary, all these results identify ephrinBs as co-receptors for Reelin signaling, playing essential roles in neuronal migration during the development of cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum (Sentürk et al., 2011).
Plants absorb sunlight via photosynthetic pigments and convert light energy intochemical energy in the process of photosynthesis. These pigments are mainly bound to antenna protein complexes that funnel the excitation energy to the photosynthetic reaction centres. The peripheral antenna of plant photosystem II (PSII) consists of the major light-harvesting complex of PSII (LHC-II) and the minor LHCs CP29, CP26 and CP24. Light intensity can change frequently and plants need to adapt to high-light conditions in order to avoid photodamage. When more photons are absorbed than can be utilised by the photosynthetic machinery, excessive excitation energy is dissipated as heat by short-term adaptation processes collectively known as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). A decrease in PSII antenna chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence yield and a reduction in the average Chl fluorescence lifetime are associated with NPQ. The main component of NPQ is the so-called energy-dependent quenching (qE), and it is triggered by the rapid drop in thylakoid lumenal pH resulting from the plant’s photosynthetic activity. This process is thought to take place at the PSII antenna complexes, which therefore not only capture and transfer light energy but are also involved in balancing the energy flow. The decrease in lumenal pH acivates the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), which converts the xanthophyll violaxanthin (Vio) into zeaxanthin (Zea) in the xanthophyll cycle. In addition, the PSII subunit PsbS was discovered to be essential for qE by screening qE-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana mutants. This membrane protein is considered a member of the LHC superfamily, which also includes LHC-II and the minor LHCs. Previous studies on PsbS isolated either from native source or refolded in vitro have produced inconsistent results on its pigment binding capacity. Interestingly, a pH-dependent change in the quaternary structure of PsbS under high light conditions has been reported. This observed dimer-tomonomer transition very likely follows the protonation of lumenal glutamates upon the drop in pH and is accompanied by a change in PSII supercomplex localisation. PsbS dimers are preferentially found in association with the PSII core, whereas PsbS monomers co-localise with LHC-II.Despite the identification of !pH, Zea and PsbS as key players in qE, both the nature of the quencher(s) as well as the underlying molecular mechanism leading to excess energy dissipation still remain unknown. Several models have been put forward to explain the reversible switch in the antenna from an energy-transmitting to a quenched state. Proposals include a simple pigment exchange of Vio for Zea, and aggregation or an internal conformational change of LHC-II. Charge transfer (CT)quenching in the minor LHCs or quenching by carotenoid dark state (Car S1)-Chl interactions have also been suggested. However, none of these qE models has so far been capable of accommodating all the physiological observations and available experimental data. Most importantly, the function of PsbS remains an enigma. A recent qE model suggested that monomerisation of PsbS enables the protein to transiently bind a carotenoid and form a quenching unit with a Chl of a PSII LHC. In view of the various proposed qE mechanisms, this thesis aimed at understanding the interplay of the different qE components and the contribution of the PSII subunits LHC-II, the minor LHCs and PsbS to qE. The initial approach was to investigate the properties of the PSII subunits in the most simple in vitro model system, namely in detergent solution. For this purpose, LHC-II was isolated either from native source or refolded from recombinantly produced protein. Investigation of the minor LHCs and PsbS required heterologous expression and refolding. In addition, experiments were performed on aggregated LHC-II. Aggregates of LHC-II have been used as a popular model system for qE because they exhibit highly quenched Chl fluorescence. At the final stage of this doctoral work, a more sophisticated model system to approximate the thylakoid membrane was developed by reconstitution of the PSII subunits LHC-II and PsbS into liposomes. This system not only allowed for investigation of these membrane proteins in their native environment, but also for mimicking the xanthophyll cycle by distribution of Zea within the membrane as well as !pH by outside buffer exchange. The role of Zea in qE was first investigated with detergent solubilised antenna proteins. The requirement of this xanthophyll for qE is well-known, but the specific contribution to the molecular quenching mechansim is unclear. Previous work had shown that replacement of Vio for Zea in LHC-II was not sufficient to induce Chl fluorescence quenching in Zea-LHC-II, as suggested by the so-called molecular gearshift mechanism. However, by means of selective two-photon excitation spectroscopy, an increase in electronic interactions between Car S1 and Chls was observed for LHC-II upon lowering the pH of the detergent buffer. Electronic Car S1-Chl coupling became even stronger when Zea-LHC-II was probed. The extent of Car S1-Chl coupling correlated directly with the extent of Chl fluorescence quenching, in a similar way as observed previously in live plants under high-light conditions. However, very similar results were obtained with LHC-II aggregates. This implied that the increase in electronic interactions and fluorescence quenching was independent of Zea and low pH. Further experiments on aggregates of LHC-II Chl mutants indicated that the targeted pigments were also not essential for the observed effects. It is proposed that the same molecular mechanism causes an increase in electronic Car S1-Chl interactions and Chl fluorescence quenching in Zea-LHC-II at low pH as well as in aggregated LHC-II. Most likely, surface exposed pigments form random quenching centres in both cases. On the other hand, it was possible that Zea could act as a direct quencher of excess excitation energy in the minor LHCs. However, enrichment of refolded CP29, CP26 and CP24 with Zea did not lead to a change in the Chl excited state lifetime. Formation of a carotenoid radical cation, previously implied in CT quenching, was also not observed, although artificial generation of such a radical cation was principally possible as shown for CP29. During the course of this work, a study reporting the formation of Zea radical cations in minor LHCs was published. Therefore, Zea-enriched minor LHCs were again investigated on the experimental apparatus used in the reported study. Indeed, the presence of at least one carotenoid radical cation for each minor complex was detected. It is suggested that either the preparation method of incubating the refolded minor LHCs with Zea in contrast to refolding the complexes with only Zea and lutein causes the observed differences or that the observed spectral radical cation signatures are due to experimental artifacts. While the experiments with LHC-II and the minor LHCs gave useful insights into the putative qE mechanism, the quencher site and the mode of action of Zea could still not be unambiguously identified. Most importantly, these studies could not explain the function of the qE keyplayer PsbS. Therefore, the focus of the work was shifted to PsbS protein production, purification and characterisation. In view of inconsistent reports on the pigment binding capacity of this PSII subunit, refolding trials with and without photosynthetic pigments were conducted. The formation of a specific pigmentprotein complex typical for other LHCs was not observed and neither was the earlier reported “activation” of Zea for qE by binding to this protein. Nevertheless, PsbS refolded without pigments displayed secondary structure content in agreement with previous studies, indicating pigment-independent folding. Reconstitution of pigmentfree, refolded PsbS into liposomes confirmed that the protein is stable in the absence of pigments. Zea distributed in PsbS-containing liposomes also showed no spectral alteration that would indicate its “activation”. With the ability to reconstitute PsbS, it was then possible to proceed to modelling qE in a proteoliposome system. For this purpose, PsbS was co-reconstituted with LHC-II, which has been reported to interact with PsbS. One-photon excitation (OPE) and two-photon excitation (TPE) spectroscopy measurements were performed on LHC-II- and LHC-II/PsbS-containing liposomes. This enabled both quantification of Chl fluorescence quenching as well as determination of the extent of electronic Car S1-Chl interactions. The effect of Zea was investigated by incorporating it in the proteoliposome membrane. It was shown that Zea alone was not able to induce significant Chl fluorescence quenching when only LHC-II was present. However, when LHC-II and PsbS were co-reconstituted, pronounced Chl fluorescence quenching and an increase in electronic Car S1-Chl interactions were observed and both effects were enhanced when Zea was present. Western blot analysis indicated the presence of a LHC-II/PsbS-heterodimer in these proteoliposomes. In addition to the OPE and TPE measurements, the average Chl fluorescence lifetime was determined in detergent-free buffer at neutral pH and directly after buffer exchange to low pH. No significant changes in the average lifetime were observed for LHC-II proteoliposomes when either Zea was present or after exchange for low pH buffer. This indicated that Zea alone cannot act as a direct quencher, which concurs with the OPE measurements. Moreover, the complex was also properly reconstituted as no aggregation or significant Chl fluorescence quenching were observed. The average lifetime was not significantly affected in LHC-II/PsbS-proteoliposomes, independent of Zea or pH. However, a shortlived component in the presence of a long-lived component was not resolvable with the time resolution of the fluorescence lifetime apparatus.
Implications for qE model systems and the in vivo quenching mechanism are discussed based on the experiments in detergent solution, on LHC-II aggregates and with the proteoliposome model system.