Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität; nur lokal zugänglich)
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Respiration is one of the key processes of energy transduction used by the cell. It consists of two components: electron transfer and ATP production. The electron transfer chain converts the energy released from several biochemical redox reactions into an electrochemical proton gradient across membranes. This stored energy is used as the driving force for the production of ATP by the ATP synthase. The mitochondrial electron transfer chain contains four major protein complexes called complexes I-IV, with counting starting at the lower side of the redox potentials. It has been discussed for a long time how these protein complexes are organized in the membranes. Do they diffuse freely in the membrane? Alternatively, do they form a supercomplex built up of several neighboring complexes? The evidence supporting the free diffusion mode is that both electron transfer intermediates (cytochrome c and quinone) behave as “pool”. However, respiratory supercomplexes have been detected in membranes from bacteria, fungi, yeast, plant and animal during the last decade, and sometimes the respiratory complexes are only stable inside a supercomplex. Therefore, the idea of supercomplex formation has become more popular. The argument that the supercomplex arises from solubilization and is a detergent artifact could be rejected because: 1) supercomplexes can be isolated from many organisms in an active form; 2) supercomplexes have been proven to stabilize the individual complexes in some cases; 3) supercomplexes can be very stable after chromatographic isolation in some cases....
The canonical Wnt pathway, also known as Wnt/β-‐catenin pathway, comprises a network of proteins which control diverse developmental and adult processes in all metazoan organisms. The binding of canonical Wnt ligands to a cell surface receptor complex, consisting of frizzled family members and low density lipoprotein receptor-‐ related protein 5 or 6 co‐receptors, triggers a signaling cascade which results in a β-catenin-‐mediated transcriptional activation of different target genes, implicated in cellular proliferation, apoptosis, migration and differentiation. A couple of years ago, several groups including us, iden2fied transient activation of the canonical Wnt-pathway in endothelial cells (ECs) of the developing central nervous system (CNS). In this context, Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling could be demonstrated to be crucial for brain angio genesis as well as for the establishment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) phenotype in the newly formed vessels.
Gliomas, in particular the glioblastoma (GBM), belong to the group of highly vascularized solid tumors which gain their vascularization due to an angiogenic switch occurring during tumor progression. Interestingly, nuclear localized β-‐catenin could be exclusively detected in the activated endothelium of induced rat gliomas and of human GBM, suggesting a so far unknown and not further characterized involvement of the canonical Wnt pathway in pathological angiogenesis. In order to systematically decipher the precise role of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling in tumor angiogenesis, I established
murine GL261 glioma cell lines overexpressing either Wnt1 or Dickkopf (Dkk) 1 in a doxycycline-‐dependent manner, an activator and potent inhibitor of Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling, respectively. In subcutaneous and intracranial transplantations, tumor-derived Wnt1 reduced, while Dkk1 increased GL261 tumor growth without affecting in vitro proliferation, cell cycle or cell death of the established cell lines. Nowadays, it is well accepted that solid tumors are dependent on vascular support allowing them to grow beyond a certain size. In my work I could show that tumor-‐derived Wnt1 targets the tumor vasculature by increasing endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling, which reduced tumor vessel density and resulted in a more quiescent tumor vasculature. Furthermore, Wnt1-‐expression mediated tight association of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and pericytes to the tumor endothelium, a phenotype which is unusual for tumor vessels and a described hallmark of tumor vessel normalization. In contrast, inhibition of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling by Dkk1 mediated an opposing effect, characterized by endothelial hyper-proliferation and a tumor vasculature with a rough basal lamina distribution and loosely anached mural cells, indicative of a strong angiogenic activity. The described vascular effects in Wnt1-expressing GL261 tumors could be verified by subcutaneous transplantations of a rat glioma cell line constitutively expressing Wnt1. Furthermore, an applied in vivo MatrigelTM plug assay uncovered the reduction in vessel density upon Wnt1 simulation to be tumor cell independent, suggesting an EC-‐autonomous effect. This hypothesis was confirmed by subcutaneous transplantations of parental GL261 cells into mice with genetically generated endothelial β-‐catenin gain-of-function (GOF). The derived GOF tumor from this experiment comprised a quiescent and normalized tumor vasculature and phenocopied the vascular effects observed in Wnt1-expressing tumors.
Our previous work provided evidence that Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling contributes to the BBB phenotype of the developing CNS through the transcriptional regulation of the tight junction protein claudin-‐3. Furthermore, the coverage of pericytes to brain vessels has been described to correlate with BBB integrity. In agreement with these publications, vessels of intracranial Wnt1-‐expressing GL261 tumors retained or regained barrier properties, indicated by a reduced leakage of the tracer Evans blue and endogenous mouse immunoglobulin G and increased junctional localiza2on of the tight junction proteins claudin-‐3, -‐5 and zonula occludens-‐1.
Overall, we detected sustained endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling to induce a quiescent and normalized tumor vascularization. Interestingly, the Notch signaling pathway has been shown to inhibit the angiogenic tip cell and to promote the quiescent stalk cell phenotype via its ligand Delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4) and the receptors Notch1 and 4. Mechanistically, my work demonstrated for the first time that overactivation of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling reactivated expression of Dll4 in the tumor endothelium, which could be shown in vitro to increase Notch signaling and to favor a stalk cell-like gene signature. Furthermore, we uncovered the platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (pdgm) as a novel transcriptional target of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in ECs. Hence endothelial-‐derived PDGF-‐B is known to promote the recruitment of mural cells, the upregulation of this factor might explain the increased SMC/pericyte coverage observed in the tumor vasculature upon sustained endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling which additionally might promote a cycle of vascular normalization.
Taken together, my work reveals several vascular effects, being mediated by reinforced endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling during tumor angiogenesis. While a moderate level of canonical Wnt signaling, observed in vessels of human astrocytomas and murine control tumors, is considered to be associated with tumor angiogenesis, dominant activation of this pathway in ECs is shown to limit angiogenesis and to promote a quiescent and normalized tumor vasculature with increased barrier properties. Furthermore, my work discovers pdgm as a novel target of canonical Wnt signaling in ECs.
The work presented in this dissertation therefore not only uncovers the role of endothelial Wnt/β-‐catenin signaling in tumor angiogenesis but additionally reveals this pathway to be a novel modulator in pathological vessel development which might proof to be a valuable therapeutic target for anti-angiogenic and edema glioma therapy.
The midbrain DA system comprising dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is involved in various brain functions, including voluntary movement and the encoding and prediction of behaviorally relevant stimuli. In Parkinsonʼs disease (PD), a progressive degeneration of particularly vulnerable SN DA neurons causes a progressive DA depletion of striatal projection sites. As a consequence, motor symptoms such as tremor, hypokinesia and rigidity appear once about 50 % to 70 % of SN DA neurons have been lost. Under physiological conditions, SN DA neurons can encode behaviorally salient events and coordinated movements through tonic and phasic activity and correlated striatal DA release. Burst-activity mediates a phasic, supralinear rise of striatal DA levels and allows to activate coordinated movements via modulation of corticostriatal signals.
In the present dissertation project, pathophysiological adaptations of surviving SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostiatal system have been studied using a 6-hydroxydopamine mouse model of PD. Combining in vivo retrograde tracing techniques with in vitro whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, multifluorescent immunolabeling and confocal microscopy allowed an unambiguous correlation of electrophysiological phenotypes, anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of recorded neurons on a single-cell level. In vitro, neuronal activity of SN DA neurons is characterized by spontaneous, slow pacemaker activity of 1 to 10 Hz and a high degree of spike-timing precision. In vitro current-clamp recordings of surviving SN DA neurons using acute brain slice preparations after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system showed a significant perturbation of spontaneous pacemaker activity, mirrored by a decreased spike-timing precision compared to controls. Selective pharmacology and whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings served to identify calciumactivated SK channels as molecular effectors of a perturbated pacemaker activity of surviving SN DA neurons. SK channels and have been shown to critically contribute to the spike-timing precision of SN DA neurons. Consistently, in vitro current-clamp recordings after pharmacological blockade of SK channels in vitro caused a significant decrease of spike-timing precision, occluding previously observed differences between surviving SN DA neurons and controls.In addition to in vitro patch-clamp recordings, extracellular single-unit recordings in anaesthetized animals in vivo served to study surviving SN DA neurons embedded in an intact neuronal network after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. Combining in vivo single-unit recordings, juxtacellular neurobiotin labeling and multifluorescent immunohistochemistry allowed to directly correlate electrophysiological and neurochemical phenotypes as well as anatomical positions on a single-cell level. In vivo, surviving SN DA neurons showed a significant decrease of spike-timing precision as reflected by an increased irregularity and an augmented burst activity compared to controls.
The present dissertation project provided a unique combination of a neurotoxicological PD mouse model, retrograde tracing techniques and in vitro as well as in vivo electrophysiologiy, allowing to unambiguously correlate electrophysiological adaptations, projection-specific anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal system. Surviving SN DA neurons exhibited a significant deficit of SK channel activity after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. In consequence of a diminished SK channel activity observed in vitro, surviving SN DA neurons exhibited and enhanced burst activity in vivo, providing a plausible mechanism to compensate a striatal DA depletion.
BMPs control postnatal dendrite growth and complexity in sympathetic neurons / von Afsaneh Majdazari
(2012)
The vertebrate nervous system is a complex network of billions of neurons connected by dendrites and axons, integrated to functional circuits and areas/organs in the central and peripheral nervous system. The cells of the nervous system origin from common progenitors, which take on different cell fates based on intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors determine general neuronal traits, but also the morphology and the type of connections made to other cells. Mechanisms underlying axonal and dendritic growth are well described in contrast to the initiation of neurite growth, which remains to be fully elucidated, especially concerning dendrite formation. Recently BMPs have been identified as candidate dendrite inducing factors in sympathetic, cortical and hippocampal neurons. Here we focus on the in vivo role of BMPs on dendrite growth in sympathetic neurons as their development and differentiation processes have been analyzed in detail.
Biochemical and functional analysis of the ubiquitin binding properties of the NF-κB regulator NEMO
(2012)
Posttranslationale Modifikationen regulieren wesentliche Eigenschaften von Proteinen, wie z. B. Lokalisation, Konformation, Aktivität, Stabilität und Interaktionsfähigkeit. Eine besondere Form der Proteinmodifikation ist die Ubiquitylierung, bei der das kleine Protein Ubiquitin mit seinem C-Terminus kovalent an ein Substratprotein gebunden wird.
Die am besten untersuchte Funktion der Ubiquitylierung ist die Markierung eines Substrates für den Abbau durch das Proteasom. In den letzten Jahren wurde jedoch entdeckt, dass Ubiquitylierung in vielen Bereichen der Zelle eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Dazu gehören der Transport von Vesikeln, die Reparatur von DNA-Schäden und zelluläre Signalübertragung. Ubiquitin kann verschieden-artige Ketten bilden, indem ein Ubiquitin an eines der sieben Lysine (K6, K11, K27, K29, K33, K48, K63) oder den N-Terminus eines anderen gebunden wird. Diese unterschiedlichen Kettentypen regulieren verschiedene Prozesse. Z. B. dienen K48-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten als Signal für den proteasomalen Abbau, wohingegen über K63 verknüpfte Ketten hauptsächlich eine Rolle bei Signalübertragungen spielen.
Die meisten Funktionen die durch Ubiquitylierung reguliert werden, werden durch Ubiquitinrezeptoren vermittelt, die eine Ubiquitinbindedomäne (UBD) besitzen. Manche UBDs binden selektiv nur einen Ubiquitinkettentyp und sind somit in der Lage gezielt Prozesse regulieren zu können, indem sie nur durch diesen speziellen Kettentyp aktiviert werden.
Das Protein NEMO ist ein Ubiquitinrezeptor, dessen UBD UBAN selektiv bestimmte Ubiquitinketten bindet. NEMO spielt eine zentrale Rolle bei der Aktivierung der Transkriptionsfaktorfamilie NF-κB, indem es den IKK-Kinasekomplex reguliert. Dieser Kinasekomplex sorgt durch die Phosphorylierung des NF-κB-Inhibitors IκBα für dessen proteasomalen Abbau, wodurch schließlich NF-κB aktiviert wird. Die NF-κB-Aktivierung kann u. a. durch den TNF-Rezeptor (TNFR) induziert werden. Am aktivierten TNFR werden viele Proteine durch verschiedene Ubiquitinketten modifiziert. Bisher wurde angenommen, dass die spezifische Bindung von NEMO an K63-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten ausschlaggebend für die Aktivierung von IKK ist. Jedoch spielen lineare Ubiquitinketten, die über den N-Terminus verknüpft sind, auch eine wichtige Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB und die UBAN von NEMO hat eine sehr hohe Affinität zu linearen Ubiquitinketten.
Um die genauen Vorgänge zu verstehen, die zur Aktivierung von NF-κB am TNFR führen, ist es nötig, zu analysieren, welche Proteine mit welchen Ubiquitinketten modifiziert werden und welche Ubiquitinrezeptoren daran binden.
In dieser Studie sollte detailliert untersucht werden, mit welchen Ubiquitin-ketten NEMO bevorzugt interagiert. Dazu wurden in vitro-Bindungsstudien mit bakteriell aufgereinigtem NEMO und verschiedenen Ubiquitinketten durchgeführt. Des Weiteren sollte geprüft werden, wie die Bindung von NEMO an bestimmte Ubiquitinketten die Aktivierung von NF-κB reguliert.
Dabei ergab sich, dass sowohl NEMO in voller Länge, als auch die UBAN, bevorzugt mit linearen Ubiquitinketten interagieren, wohingegen die Interaktion von NEMO mit anderen Ubiquitinketten relativ schwach ist. Ausgehend von einer Kristallstruktur eines Komplexes aus der NEMO-UBAN und linearem di-Ubiquitin, wurden NEMO-Mutanten generiert, die seletkiv die Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten verhindern, während die schwache Bindung von NEMO an längere K63-verknüpfte Ketten erhalten blieb. Um die Relevanz der Interaktion von NEMO mit linearen Ubiquitinketten für die Aktivierung von NF κB zu überprüfen, wurden diese NEMO-Mutanten dann verwendet um Zellen die kein NEMO exprimieren zu rekonstituieren. Nach Stimulation dieser Zellen mit TNFα wurde NF-κB kaum aktiviert, womit gezeigt werden konnte, dass NEMO gezielt an lineare Ubiquitinketten binden muss, um NF-κB zu aktivieren. Zusätzlich zu seiner Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB ist NEMO ein wichtiger Inhibitor der durch den TNFR induzierten Apoptose. In dieser Studie wurde gezeigt, dass diese Apoptoseinhibierung abhängig von der Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten ist, da die Zellen die NEMO-Mutanten exprimierten, die keine linearen Ketten binden können, durch Apoptose starben, währen Wildtyp-Zellen überlebten.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Studie gezeigt werden, dass NEMO bevorzugt und mit vergleichsweise hoher Affinität an lineare Ubiquitinketten bindet und dass diese spezifische Bindung wichtig für die Inhibierung von TNFR-induzierter Apoptose sowie für die Aktivierung von NF-κB ist.
Typ I Interferone sind bekannt für die durch sie vermittelten immunaktivierenden bzw. antiviralen Effekte. Nach ihrer Induktion, im Rahmen der angeborenen Immunantwort, vermitteln Interferone nicht nur einen systemischen anti-viralen Status, sondern können auch wichtige Effektormechanismen der adaptiven Immunität dahingehend beeinflussen, dass sie diese verstärken bzw. ermöglichen. Im Allgemeinen kann diese Eigenschaft als pro-inflammatorische Aktivität der Interferone bezeichnet werden. Allerdings gehört es ebenfalls zu den Eigenschaften der Interferone eine Verminderung der adaptiven Immunität bewirken zu können, was als anti-inflammatorische Aktivität verstanden werden kann. Insgesamt kann man die durch Interferone induzierten Effekte also als ambivalent bezeichnen.
Die Leber als Immunorgan besitzt, ähnlich wie die Interferone, eine zentrale Rolle in der Immunität und sollte in ihrer Funktion als Vermittler zwischen Immunaktivierung und Immuntoleranz nicht unterschätzt werden. Die Aufgaben der Leber können ebenfalls als ambivalent bezeichnet werden, da sie zum einen eine unnötige Aktivierung des Immunsystems verhindern muss um eine Schädigung der Leberzellen zu vermeiden (Immuntoleranz). Zum anderen muss auch in der Leber eine Immunaktivierung stattfinden können, um den Schutz vor Pathogenen zu gewährleisten.
In einem Leberschadenmodell, das künstliche Doppelstrang-RNA (poly(I:C)) zur Induktion von Typ I Interferonen verwendet, sollen im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit Immunmodulationen, insbesondere in der Leber, untersucht werden. Hierbei liegt das Hauptaugenmerk auf den Interferon-vermittelten Effekten, die eine Schädigung der Leber verhindern.
Werden Interferonrezeptor-defiziente Tiere (IFNAR-/-) intraperitoneal mit poly(I:C) behandelt kann eine ausgeprägte Schädigung der Leber sowie Hepatitis in diesen Tieren beobachtet werden. Wildtyp (WT) Mäuse zeigen hingegen keinerlei Schädigungen der Leber, was für einen protektiven bzw. anti-inflammatorischen Effekt spricht, der über den IFNAR und damit über Typ I Interferone vermittelt wird. Unter Verwendung von Mäusen, die eine selektive Deletion des IFNAR auf bestimmten Immunzellen tragen (alle anderen Zellen der Maus exprimieren jedoch weiterhin den IFNAR), konnte der Immunzelltyp ermittelt werden, der beim IFNAR-vermittelten Schutz der Leber eine Schlüsselrolle übernimmt. Aus diesen Experimenten wird deutlich, dass es myeloide Zellen sind, die über den IFNAR durch Typ I Interferone stimuliert werden müssen, um im poly(I:C)-induzierten Leberschadenmodell einen Schutz der Leber zu bewirken. Ergänzend dazu konnte gezeigt werden, dass CD11b- und F4/80-doppelt positive Makrophagen nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung in die Leber von WT Mäusen infiltrieren. Zudem wurde in Experimenten mit Interferon-Reporter Mäusen deutlich, dass diese infiltrierenden Makrophagen über den IFNAR durch Typ I Interferone stimuliert sind. Nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung konnte gezeigt werden, dass Leber-infiltrierende Zellen in WT Mäusen anti-inflammatorischen Interleukin-1 Rezeptor Antagonisten (IL-1RA) sekretieren. In Abwesenheit eines funktionalen Interferonsystems hingegen (in IFNAR-/- Mäusen) konnte eine gestörte IL-1beta- und IL-1RA-Balance festgestellt werden. Für diese Zytokine, die sich gegenseitig regulieren, indem der anti-inflammatorische IL-1RA mit dem pro-inflammatorischen IL-1beta um die Bindung an den IL-1 Rezeptor konkurriert, konnte gezeigt werden, dass ihre Expression in der Leber Interferon-abhängig reguliert wird. In IFNAR-/- Mäusen und in Mäusen, deren IFNAR selektiv auf myeloiden Zellen deletiert war, konnte keine IL-1RA-Expression durch infiltrierende Zellen detektiert werden. Da in diesen Tieren nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung massive Leberschäden beobachtet wurden, kann vermutet werden, dass das Vorhandensein des anti-inflammatorischen IL-1RA unerlässlich für den Schutz der Leber ist.
Abschließend kann zusammengefasst werden, dass die Interferon-vermittelten Effekte, die eine Schädigung der Leber verhindern, zum einen auf der Stimulation und Rekrutierung von Makrophagen beruhen. Zum anderen beruhen diese Effekte auf der Induktion des anti-inflammatorischen Zytokins IL-1RA, und der dadurch blockierten Wirkung des pro-inflammatorischen IL-1beta.
Durch diese Ergebnisse werden neue Einblicke in die Interferon-vermittelte Hemmung von Virus- und Autoimmun-induzierten Erkrankungen der Leber ermöglicht. Genutzt werden könnten diese für die Optimierung IFN-basierter Therapien. Beispielsweise kann durch die gezielte Induktion anti-inflammatorischer Zytokine über IFNAR-induzierte Signalwege oder die direkte Gabe anti-inflammatorischer Zytokine (z.B. IL-1RA) eine Therapie entwickelt werden, die neben den vorteilhaften Eigenschaften der Zytokine eine verbesserte Aktivierung von Immunzellen ermöglicht.
The environmental impact of climate change is meanwhile not only discussed in the scientific community but also in the general public. However, little is known about the interaction between climate change and pollutants like pesticides. A combination of multiple stressors (e.g. temperature, pollutants, predators) may lead to severe alterations for organisms such as changes in time of reproduction, reproductive success and growth performance, mortality and geographic distribution. The questions if aquatic organisms tend to react more sensitive towards incidents under climate change conditions remains. Therefore, within the present thesis the aquatic ecotoxicological profile of the fungicide pyrimethanil, as an exemplarily anthropogenic used contaminant, was examined.
A large test battery of ecotoxicological standard tests and supplement bioassays with non-model species was conducted to investigate if species-specific or life stage-specific differences occur or if temperature alteration may change the impact of the fungicide. Two of the most sensitive species (Chironomus riparius and Daphnia magna) were used to investigate the acute and chronic thermal dependence of pyrimethanil effects. The results clearly depict that the ecotoxicity of pyrimethanil at optimal thermal conditions did not depend on the trophic level, but was species-specific. With regard to EC10 values the acute pyrimethanil toxicity on C. riparius increased with higher temperature (6.78 mg L-1 at 14°C and 3.06 mg L-1 at 26°C). The chronic response of D. magna to the NOEC (no observed effect concentration) of the fungicide (0.5 mg L-1) was examined in an experiment which lasted for several generations under three simulated near-natural temperature regimes (‘cold year, today’ (11 to 22.7°C), ‘warm year, today’ (14 to 25.2°C) and ‘warm year, 2080’ (16.5 to 28.1°C)). A pyrimethanil-induced mortality increase was buffered by the strongly related increase of the general reproductive capacity, while population growth was stronger influenced by temperature than by the fungicide. At a further pyrimethanil concentration (LOEC – lowest observed effect concentration: 1 mg L-1), a second generation could not be established by D. magna under all thermal regimes.
Besides daphnids, the midge C. riparius was used for a second multigeneration study. In a bifactorial test design it was tested if climate change conditions alter or affect the impact of a low fungicide concentration on life history and genetic diversity. The NOAEC/2 (half of the no observed adverse effect concentration derived from a standard toxicity test) was used as a low pyrimethanil concentration to which laboratory populations of the midges were chronically exposed under the mentioned temperature scenarios. During the 140-day-multigeneration study, survival, emergence, reproduction, population growth, and genetic diversity of C. riparius were analyzed. The results reveal that high temperatures and pyrimethanil act synergistically on life history parameters of C. riparius. In simulated present-day scenarios, a NOAEC/2 of pyrimethanil provoked only slight to moderate beneficial or adverse effects. In contrast, an exposure to a NOAEC/2 concentration of pyrimethanil at a thermal situation likely for a summer under the future expactations uncovered adverse effects on mortality and population growth rate. In addition, genetic diversity was considerably reduced by pyrimethanil in the ‘warm year, 2080’ scenario, but only slightly under current climatic conditions. The multigeneration studies under near-natural thermal conditions indicate that not only the impact of climate change, but also low concentrations of pesticides may pose a reasonable risk for aquatic invertebrates in the future. This clearly shows that thermal and multigenerational effects should be considered when appraising the ecotoxicity of pesticides and assessing their future risk for the environment.
In addition to temperature further multiple abiotic and biotic stressors alterate pollutant effects. Moreover, to better discriminate and understand the intrinsic and environmental correlates of changing aquatic ecosystems, it was experimentally unraveled how the effects of a low-dose of pyrimethanil on daphnids becomes modified by different temperatures (15°C, 20°C, 25°C) and in the presence/ absence of predator kairomones of Chaoborus flavicans larvae. The usage of a fractional multifactorial test design provided the possibility to investigate the individual growth, reproduction and population growth rate of Daphnia pulex via different exposure routes to the fungicide pyrimethanil at an environmentally relevant concentration (0.05 mg L-1) - either directly (via the water phase), indirectly (via algae food), dually (via water and food) or for multiple generations (fungicide treated source population).
The number of neonates increased with increasing temperatures. At a temperature of 25°C no significant differences between the individual treatment groups were observed although the growth was overall inhibited due to pyrimethanil. Besides, at 15 and 20°C it is obvious that daphnids which were fed with contaminated algae had the lowest reproduction and growth rate. The obtained results clearly demonstrate that multiple stress factors can modify the response of daphnids to pollutants. The exposure routes of the contaminant are of minor importance, while temperature and the presence of a predator are the dominant factors impacting the reproduction of D. pulex. It can be concluded that low concentrations of pyrimethanil may disturb the zooplankton community at suboptimal temperature conditions, but the effects will become masked if chaoborid larvae are present. Therefore it seems necessary to observe prospectively if the combination of several stress factors like pesticide exposure and suboptimal temperature may influence the life history and sensitivity of several aquatic invertebrates differently.
Besides standard test organisms it is inevitable to conduct test with aquatic invertebrate which are not yet considered regularly in ecotoxicological experiments. For example molluscs represent one of the largest phyla of macroinvertebrates with more than 100.000 species, being ecologically and economically important. Therefore, within the present study embryo, juvenile, half- and full-life cycle toxicity tests with the snail Physella acuta were performed to investigate the impact of pollutants on various life stages. Different concentrations of pyrimethanil (0.06-0.5 or 1.0 mg L-1) assessed at three temperatures (15°C, 20°C, 25°C) revealed that pyrimethanil caused concentration-dependent effects independent of temperature. Interestingly, the ecotoxicity of pyrimethanil was higher at lower temperature for the embryo hatching and F1 reproduction, but its ecotoxicity for the growth of juveniles and the F0 reproduction increased with increasing temperature. More specifically, it could have been observed that especially during the reproduction test high mortality rates occurred at the highest concentration of 1 mg L-1 at all temperatures. Due to high mortality rates no snails were available for the F1 at the highest concentrations (0.5 and 1.0 mg L-1). Compared to the F0, overall more egg masses were produced in the F1, being all fertile and no mortality occurred. For the F1-generation the strongest pyrimethanil effects were detected at 15°C. A comparison of effect concentrations between both generations showed that the F1 is more sensitive than the F0.
These results indicate that an exposure over more than one generation may give a better overview of the impact of xenobiotics. With the establishment of an embryo and reproduction test under different temperatures and various concentrations of pyrimethanil with P. acuta we could successfully show that molluscs can respond more sensitive than model organisms and that both, chemical and thermal stressor strongly influence the behaviour of the pulmonates. It can be concluded that the high susceptibility for the fungicide observed in gastropods clearly demonstrates the complexity of pesticide-temperature interactions and the challenge to draw conclusions for the ecotoxicological risk assessment of pesticides under the impact of global climate change.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) assembly and production is closely linked to lipid metabolism. Indeed, lipid droplets (LD) have been shown to serve as a platform for HCV assembly. To investigate the effect of HCV on the host cell proteome, 2D-gelelectrophoresis with subsequent MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of HCV replicating and the corresponding control cells were done. Based on this analysis, it was found out that HCV-replicating Huh7.5 cells revealed lower amounts of TIP47 (tail interacting protein of 47kD) compared to HCV-negative cells. TIP47, a cytoplasmic sorting factor, has been shown to be associated with lipid droplets. As it is known that HCV-replication and assembly takes place at the so called ”membranous web” that is composed of LDs and rearranged ER-derived membranes, it was tempting to investigate the role of TIP47 in HCV life-cycle. Western blot analysis did reveal that overexpression of TIP47 in HCV replicating Huh7.5 cells leads to decreased amounts of the HCV core protein while the levels of non-structural protein (NS)5A and intracellular HCVgenomes are increased. Moreover, in TIP47 overproducing cells higher amounts of infectious HCV particles are secreted. Vice versa, inhibition of TIP47 expression by siRNA results in a decreased level of intracellular NS5A, increased amounts of intracellular core and less infectious viral particles in the supernatant. In addition, complete silencing of TIP47 by lentiviral transduction abolishes HCV replication that can be restored by transfection of these cells with a TIP47 expression construct. It has been shown recently that apoE binds to NS5A and that this interaction plays an important role for the HCV life cycle (Benga et al., 2010). The C-terminal part of TIP47 harbours a 4 helix bundle motif and displays high homology to the N-terminus of apoE. Therefore, we investigated the interaction of NS5A and TIP47. Confocal double immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that a fraction of NS5A colocalizes with TIP47. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments and a yeast-two-hybrid screening confirmed the interaction between NS5A and TIP47 and deletion of the N-terminal-TIP47-PAT domain abolishes this interaction. From this we conclude that the TIP47-NS5A interaction is required for virus morphogenesis. Moreover, TIP47 can bind to Rab9 and this is relevant for targeting the viral particle out of the cell. In accordance to this, TIP47 was identified to be associated to the viral particle. Mutants of TIP47 that fail to bind Rab9 reveal lower amounts and a changed distribution of the HCV core protein. Furthermore, we could see that the core staining colocalizes with subcellular structures that were identified as autophagosomes using a p62-specific antibody which is a specific autophagosome-marker. Based on this, we hypothized that destruction of the Rab9 binding domain misdirects the viral particle towards the lysosomal compartment.
For the first time it could be shown that TIP47 interacts with NS5A and is associated to the viral particle, therefore plays a crucial role for the virus morphogenesis and secretion of the viral article.
Taken together, these results indicate that TIP47 is an essential cellular factor for the life cycle of HCV Abstract and might be used as target for antiviral treatment, e.g. by targeting the NS5A-TIP47 interaction, based on small molecules that mimic the NS5A-specific sequence that binds to TIP47 which might result in a competition of the TIP47/NS5A interaction.
The universal biological energy currency adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the F1Fo-ATP synthase in most living organisms. The overall structure and function of F-type ATPases is conserved in the different organisms. The F1Fo-ATP synthase consist of two domains; the soluble F1 complex has the subunit stoichiometry α3β3γδε and the membrane embedded Fo complex consists of subunits ab2c10-15 in its simplest form found in bacteria. F1 and Fo both function as reversible rotary motors that are connected by a central stalk (γε) and a peripheral stalk (b2δ).
For ATP synthesis, the electrochemical energy formed by a proton or sodium ion gradient is required. The ion translocation across the Fo subcomplex induces torque in the motor part of the enzyme (cnγε), which causes conformational changes in the α3β3 domain leading to ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) catalyzed in the β-subunits. ATP hydrolysis causes a reverse torque in the Fo subcomplex triggering uphill ion translocation from cytoplasm to periplasm, and the enzyme functions as an ion pump.
The ATP synthesis mechanism is well understood, since several high-resolution structures of F1 are available. In contrast, the ion translocation mechanism across the membrane, mediated by the Fo subcomplex, is not understood in its structural detail.
Subunit a and the c-ring form an ion pathway, but subunit b is needed to form an active ion translocation pathway in both H+- and Na+-dependent systems. Several high-resolution structures of c-rings have provided insights in the ion translocation mechanism. The different ion translocation models based on biochemical, biophysical and structural analysis are in agreement in the fact that ions are translocated through a periplasmic ion access pathway in subunit a to the middle of the membrane and there to the binding site of a c-subunit. After almost a whole rotation of the c-ring the ion returns into the a-c interface, where it can be released to the cytoplasm. In the different models the cytoplasmic access pathway has been proposed to be located in subunit a, at the a-c interface or within the c-ring. The driving force of torque generation has been proposed to be the pH gradient or membrane potential. Several biochemical studies show that a conserved arginine in helix four of subunit a (R226 in Ilyobacter tartaricus or R210 in Escherichia coli)plays a critical role in the ion translocation. The arginine has been proposed to function as an electrostatic separator between the cytoplasmic and periplasmic pathways and as a mediator of the ion exchange into the c-ring ion-binding site.
Structural data of a related enzyme (V1Vo-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus) has provided insight into the helical arrangement of the ion translocating subunits I and Lring (related to subunit a and the c-ring). These structures indicated a small interface between subunit I and the L-ring, and two four-helix bundles in the N-terminal domain of subunit I were proposed to build the periplasmic and cytoplasmic ion pathways. To comprehend the ion-translocation and torque generation mechanism in F1Fo-ATP synthase, structural data of an intact a-c complex is needed.
The goal of this work was to obtain structural data of subunit a, most preferably in a complex with the c-ring or additionally with subunit b. Therefore, a new purification procedure for the I. tartaricus Fo-subcomplex, heterologously expressed in E. coli cells, was established. The purified Fo was characterized biochemically and by Laserinduced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID-MS). These analyses showed that pure and completely assembled Fo containing all its subunits in the correct stoichiometry (ab2c11) was obtained. The purified Fo complex was stable at 4°C for several months and at room temperature in the presence of lipids for several weeks. A lipid analysis was performed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) to investigate the qualitative lipid composition of I. tartaricus whole lipid extract and various I. tartaricus F1Fo isolates. The whole lipid extract contained PC, PG and PE lipids and probably cardiolipin. PC, PG and PE lipids were bound to wild type I. tartaricus F1Fo, whereas recombinant I. tartaricus F1Fo did not have any bound lipids, but was able to bind the synthetic lipids POPC and POPG if they were provided during the purification.
For subsequent structural studies the purified Fo was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials. Vesicles and sheets tightly packed with protein and crystals with a rare plane group for I. tartaricus c11 (p121) were obtained. The c-ring was visible in the CCD images, and immunogold-labeling revealed the presence of the His-tagged a-subunit in the reconstituted vesicles. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging showed protein densities next to the c-rings, which protruded less from the membrane (0.4±0.1 nm) than the c-ring (0.7±0.1 nm). These protein densities presumably belonged to subunit a.
Cryo-electronmicroscopy (cryo-EM) was used to collect data of the p121 crystals and a merged projection density map was calculated to 7.0 Å resolution. The unit cell of the crystals (81 × 252 Å) contained two asymmetric units with three c-rings in each and next to the c11-rings new prominent densities were visible. In each extra density up to 7 transmembrane helices were visible, belonging to the stator subunit a and/or subunit b. To elucidate whether there are conserved elements in the three extra densities non-crystallographic averaging was applied using a single-particle approach.
Six possible arrangements for the c-rings and the extra densities were identified and used for the averaging. The extra densities were enhanced only in one of the possible arrangements. The average showed a four-helix bundle and a fifth helix in close proximity to the c-ring. Two more helices were present in each position but their position was ambivalent. The data obtained in this work provides the first insight in the helical arrangement in the a-c interface of F1Fo-ATP synthase.