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The adaptive immune system protects against daily infections and malignant transformation. In this, the translocation of antigenic peptides by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the ER lumen is an essential step in the antigen presentation by MHC I molecules. The heterodimeric ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) TAP consist of the two halftransporters TAP1 and TAP2. Each monomer contains an N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD) and a conserved C-terminal nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Together, the TMDs build the translocation core and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP, energizing the peptide transport. TAP features an asymmetry in the two ATP-binding sites that are built of several conserved motifs. One motif is the D-loop with the consensus sequence SALD. The highly conserved aspartate of the D-loop of TAP1 reaches into the canonic ATP-binding site and contacts the Walker A motif and the H-loop of the opposite NBD, while the Asp of D-loop of TAP2 is part of the non-canonic ATP-binding site.
To examine this ABC transport complex in mechanistic detail, a purification and reconstitution procedure was established with the function of TAP being preserved. The heterodimeric TAP complex was purified via a His10-tag at TAP1 in a 1:1 ratio of the subunits. Nucleotide binding to the purified transporter was elucidated by tryptophan quenching assays and the affinity constants for MgADP and MgATP were determined to be 1.0 μM and 0.7 μM, respectevely. In addition, the TAP complex shows strict coupling between peptide binding and ATP hydrolysis, revealing no basal ATPase activity in the absence of peptides. Furthermore, TAP was reconstituted into proteoliposomes and the activity was tested by peptide transport and ATP hydrolysis. Interestingly, the kinetic parameters of the transporter in the reconstituted state are comparable to the data gained for TAP in microsomes.
To characterize the functional importance of the D-loop, D-loop mutants of either TAP1 or TAP2 were analyzed. Strikingly, TAP containing a mutated D-loop in TAP1 (D674A) shows an ATP-hydrolysis independent peptide translocation. Accordingly, the MHC I surface expression is similar to the wildtype situation. However, the same mutation in TAP2 (D638A) results in an ATPase dependent peptide transport similar to wildtype, whereas TAP containing mutations in both subunits leads to an inactive transporter. Although all D-loop mutants showed no altered peptide binding activity, the TAP1 mutant is inactive in peptide-stimulated ATPase activity. Strikingly, ATP or ADP binding is strictly required for the peptide translocation. Experiments carried out in proteoliposomes demonstrate that wildtype TAP can export peptides against their gradient when low peptide concentrations are offered. In contrast, the D674A mutant can facilitate peptide translocation along their concentration gradient in the two directions. At high peptide concentrations, TAP is trapped in a transport incompetent state induced by trans-inhibition. In conclusion, a TAP mutant that uncouples solute translocation from ATP hydrolysis was created. Since this passive substrate movement is strictly dependent on binding of ATP or ADP, an active transporter was turned into a “nucleotide-gated facilitator”.
In a cysteine cross-linking approach the conformational changes of TAP during peptide transport and the flexibility of the nucleotide binding domains were examined. Single cysteines were introduced in the D-loops of TAP1 and TAP2. Cross-linking by copper-phenantroline (CuPhe) was possible for all combinations. However, by adding ATP, ADP or peptide to the TAP complex no differences in the cross-linking efficiency were detected. By CuPhe cross-linking TAP was trapped in a conformation, in which the peptide binding site was not accessible. To complete a transport cycle, a flexibility of at least 17.8 Å of the NBDs is needed, since TAP cross-linked by CuPhe (2.0 Å) or bismaleimidoethane (BMOE, 8.0 Å) was transport inactive but when TAP was cross-linked by 1,11-bismaleimido-triethyleneglycol (BM[PEG]3, 17.8 Å) transport activity was preserved.
The universal biological energy currency adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the F1Fo-ATP synthase in most living organisms. The overall structure and function of F-type ATPases is conserved in the different organisms. The F1Fo-ATP synthase consist of two domains; the soluble F1 complex has the subunit stoichiometry α3β3γδε and the membrane embedded Fo complex consists of subunits ab2c10-15 in its simplest form found in bacteria. F1 and Fo both function as reversible rotary motors that are connected by a central stalk (γε) and a peripheral stalk (b2δ).
For ATP synthesis, the electrochemical energy formed by a proton or sodium ion gradient is required. The ion translocation across the Fo subcomplex induces torque in the motor part of the enzyme (cnγε), which causes conformational changes in the α3β3 domain leading to ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) catalyzed in the β-subunits. ATP hydrolysis causes a reverse torque in the Fo subcomplex triggering uphill ion translocation from cytoplasm to periplasm, and the enzyme functions as an ion pump.
The ATP synthesis mechanism is well understood, since several high-resolution structures of F1 are available. In contrast, the ion translocation mechanism across the membrane, mediated by the Fo subcomplex, is not understood in its structural detail.
Subunit a and the c-ring form an ion pathway, but subunit b is needed to form an active ion translocation pathway in both H+- and Na+-dependent systems. Several high-resolution structures of c-rings have provided insights in the ion translocation mechanism. The different ion translocation models based on biochemical, biophysical and structural analysis are in agreement in the fact that ions are translocated through a periplasmic ion access pathway in subunit a to the middle of the membrane and there to the binding site of a c-subunit. After almost a whole rotation of the c-ring the ion returns into the a-c interface, where it can be released to the cytoplasm. In the different models the cytoplasmic access pathway has been proposed to be located in subunit a, at the a-c interface or within the c-ring. The driving force of torque generation has been proposed to be the pH gradient or membrane potential. Several biochemical studies show that a conserved arginine in helix four of subunit a (R226 in Ilyobacter tartaricus or R210 in Escherichia coli)plays a critical role in the ion translocation. The arginine has been proposed to function as an electrostatic separator between the cytoplasmic and periplasmic pathways and as a mediator of the ion exchange into the c-ring ion-binding site.
Structural data of a related enzyme (V1Vo-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus) has provided insight into the helical arrangement of the ion translocating subunits I and Lring (related to subunit a and the c-ring). These structures indicated a small interface between subunit I and the L-ring, and two four-helix bundles in the N-terminal domain of subunit I were proposed to build the periplasmic and cytoplasmic ion pathways. To comprehend the ion-translocation and torque generation mechanism in F1Fo-ATP synthase, structural data of an intact a-c complex is needed.
The goal of this work was to obtain structural data of subunit a, most preferably in a complex with the c-ring or additionally with subunit b. Therefore, a new purification procedure for the I. tartaricus Fo-subcomplex, heterologously expressed in E. coli cells, was established. The purified Fo was characterized biochemically and by Laserinduced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID-MS). These analyses showed that pure and completely assembled Fo containing all its subunits in the correct stoichiometry (ab2c11) was obtained. The purified Fo complex was stable at 4°C for several months and at room temperature in the presence of lipids for several weeks. A lipid analysis was performed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) to investigate the qualitative lipid composition of I. tartaricus whole lipid extract and various I. tartaricus F1Fo isolates. The whole lipid extract contained PC, PG and PE lipids and probably cardiolipin. PC, PG and PE lipids were bound to wild type I. tartaricus F1Fo, whereas recombinant I. tartaricus F1Fo did not have any bound lipids, but was able to bind the synthetic lipids POPC and POPG if they were provided during the purification.
For subsequent structural studies the purified Fo was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials. Vesicles and sheets tightly packed with protein and crystals with a rare plane group for I. tartaricus c11 (p121) were obtained. The c-ring was visible in the CCD images, and immunogold-labeling revealed the presence of the His-tagged a-subunit in the reconstituted vesicles. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging showed protein densities next to the c-rings, which protruded less from the membrane (0.4±0.1 nm) than the c-ring (0.7±0.1 nm). These protein densities presumably belonged to subunit a.
Cryo-electronmicroscopy (cryo-EM) was used to collect data of the p121 crystals and a merged projection density map was calculated to 7.0 Å resolution. The unit cell of the crystals (81 × 252 Å) contained two asymmetric units with three c-rings in each and next to the c11-rings new prominent densities were visible. In each extra density up to 7 transmembrane helices were visible, belonging to the stator subunit a and/or subunit b. To elucidate whether there are conserved elements in the three extra densities non-crystallographic averaging was applied using a single-particle approach.
Six possible arrangements for the c-rings and the extra densities were identified and used for the averaging. The extra densities were enhanced only in one of the possible arrangements. The average showed a four-helix bundle and a fifth helix in close proximity to the c-ring. Two more helices were present in each position but their position was ambivalent. The data obtained in this work provides the first insight in the helical arrangement in the a-c interface of F1Fo-ATP synthase.
Succinate:quinone oxidoreductases (SQORs) are integral membrane protein complexes, which couple the two-electron oxidation of succinate to fumarate (succinate → fumarate + 2H+ + 2e-) to the two-electron reduction of quinone to quinol (quinone + 2H+ + 2e- → quinol) as well as catalyzing the opposite reaction, the reduction of fumarate by quinol. In mitochondria and some aerobic bacteria, succinate:ubiquinone reductase, also known as complex II of the aerobic respiratory chain or as succinate dehydrogenase from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle, catalyzes the oxidation of succinate by ubiquinone, which is mildly exergonic under standart conditions and not directly associated with energy storage in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential (Δp). Gram-positive bacteria do not contain ubiquinone but rather menaquinone, a quinone with significantly lower oxidation-reduction (“redox”) midpoint potential. In these cases, the catalyzed oxidation of succinate by quinone is endergonic under standard conditions. Consequently, these bacteria face a thermodynamic problem in supporting the catalysis of this reaction in vivo. Based on experimental evidence obtained on whole cells and purified membranes, it had previously been proposed that the SQR from Gram-positive bacteria supports this reaction at the expense of the protonmotive force, Δp. Nonetheless, it has been argued that the observed Δp dependence is not associated specifically with the activity of SQR because the occurrence of artifacts in experiments with bacterial membranes and whole cells can not be fully excluded. Clearly, definitive insight into the mechanism of catalysis of this intriguing reaction required a corresponding functional characterization of an isolated, membranebound SQR from a Gram-positive bacterium. The first aim of the present work addresses the question if the general feasibility of the energetically uphill electron transfer from succinate to menaquinone is associated specifically to a single enzyme complex, the SQR. The prerequisite to achieve this goal was stable preparation of this enzyme.
Orthopoxviruses are large DNA viruses that replicate within the cytoplasm of infected cells encoding over a hundred different proteins. The orthopoxviral 68k ankyrin‐like protein (68k‐ank) is highly conserved among orthopoxviruses, and this study aimed at elucidating the function of 68k‐ank. The 68k‐ank protein is composed of four ankyrin repeats (ANK) and an F‐box‐like domain; both motifs are known proteinprotein interaction domains. The F‐box is found in cellular F‐box proteins (FBP), crucial components of cellular E3 ubiquitin (Ub) ligases. With yeast‐two‐hybrid screens and subsequent co‐immunoprecipitation analyses, it was possible to identify S‐phase kinase‐associated protein 1a (Skp1a) as a cellular counterpart of 68k‐ank via binding to the F‐box‐like domain. Additionally, Cullin‐1 was co‐precipitated, suggesting the formation of a viral‐cellular SCF E3 Ub ligase complex. Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) ‐ being attenuated and unable to replicate in most mammalian cell lines due to a block in morphogenesis – nevertheless, expresses its complete genetic information attributing to its properties as promising vector vaccine. Conservation of 68k‐ank as the only ANK protein encoded by MVA implied a substantial role of this viral factor. Hence, its function in the viral life cycle was assessed by studying a 68k‐ank knock‐out MVA. A mutant phenotype manifested in nonpermissive mammalian cells characterized by a block succeeding viral early gene expression and by a reduced ability of the virus to shutoff host protein synthesis. Studies with MVA encoding a 68k‐ank F‐box‐like domain truncated protein revealed that viral‐cellular SCF complex formation and maintenance of viral gene expression are two distinct, unrelated functions fulfilled by 68k‐ank. Moreover, K1, a well‐described VACV host range factor of the ANK protein family, is able to complement 68k‐ank function. This suggests that gene expression of MVA putatively depends on the ANKs encoded in 68k‐ank. In addition to the important findings in vitro, first virulence studies with the mouse pox agent, ectromelia virus (ECTV) deleted of the 68k‐ank ortholog (C11) suggested that this factor contributes to ECTV virulence in vivo.
The technique of site-specific fluorescence labelling with Tetramethylrhodaminemaleimide (TMRM) in combination with two electrode voltage-clamp technique (TEVC), an approach that has been named voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF), has been used in this work to study the Na,K-ATPase. The TMRM dye has the ability to attach covalently to cysteine residues and it responds to changes in the hydrophobicity of its local environment. We exploited this property using a construct of the Na-pump in which the native, extracellularly accessible cysteines were removed and cysteine residues were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis in specific positions of the Na-pump. In this way it was possible to detect site-specific conformational rearrangements of the Na-pump in a time-resolved fashion within a native membrane environment. In particular this technique allows to resolve reactions with low electrogenicity that cannot be satisfactorily analyzed with purely electrophysiological techniques and to identify the conformations of the enzyme under specific ionic composition of the measuring buffers. We used VCF to study the influence that several cations like Na+, K+, NMG+, TEA+ and BTEA+ exert on the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase between several enzymatic intermediates and on some of the reactions related to cation transport. To this end we utilized the mutants N790C in the loop M5-M6 and the mutant E307C, T309C, L311C and E312C in the loop M3-M4. From the correspondence of the fluorescence changes with the activation and inhibition of pumping current, by K+ and ouabain respectively, and from the fact that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions the voltage distribution of charge movement and fluorescence changes evoked by voltage jumps are in reasonable agreement we conclude that through the fluorescence signals measured from these mutants, we can indeed monitor conformational changes linked to transport activity of the enzyme. For the mutants N790 and L311, it was found that the Na+ dependence of the amplitude and kinetics of the fluorescence signal associated with the E1P-E2P transition is in agreement with the prediction of an access channel model describing the regulation of the access of extracellular Na+ to its binding site. In particular for the mutants E307 and T309 it was found that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions, the conformational change tracked by the fluorescence was much slower than the charge relaxation at hyperpolarized potentials while the kinetics was very similar at depolarized potentials. This implies that at hyperpolarized potentials the conformational change connected to the E1P-E2P transition does not give a large contribution to the electrogenicity of the process which is also consistent with the access channel model. On the mutant N790C it was found that the external pH does not seem to have any effect on the E1P-E2P equilibrium even if it seems to modulate the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. Fluorescence quenching experiments with iodide and D2O indicate that at hyperpolarized potentials the local environment of the mutant N790C, experiences a small change in the accessibility to water without major changes in the local electrostatic field ...
Plants absorb sunlight via photosynthetic pigments and convert light energy intochemical energy in the process of photosynthesis. These pigments are mainly bound to antenna protein complexes that funnel the excitation energy to the photosynthetic reaction centres. The peripheral antenna of plant photosystem II (PSII) consists of the major light-harvesting complex of PSII (LHC-II) and the minor LHCs CP29, CP26 and CP24. Light intensity can change frequently and plants need to adapt to high-light conditions in order to avoid photodamage. When more photons are absorbed than can be utilised by the photosynthetic machinery, excessive excitation energy is dissipated as heat by short-term adaptation processes collectively known as non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). A decrease in PSII antenna chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence yield and a reduction in the average Chl fluorescence lifetime are associated with NPQ. The main component of NPQ is the so-called energy-dependent quenching (qE), and it is triggered by the rapid drop in thylakoid lumenal pH resulting from the plant’s photosynthetic activity. This process is thought to take place at the PSII antenna complexes, which therefore not only capture and transfer light energy but are also involved in balancing the energy flow. The decrease in lumenal pH acivates the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), which converts the xanthophyll violaxanthin (Vio) into zeaxanthin (Zea) in the xanthophyll cycle. In addition, the PSII subunit PsbS was discovered to be essential for qE by screening qE-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana mutants. This membrane protein is considered a member of the LHC superfamily, which also includes LHC-II and the minor LHCs. Previous studies on PsbS isolated either from native source or refolded in vitro have produced inconsistent results on its pigment binding capacity. Interestingly, a pH-dependent change in the quaternary structure of PsbS under high light conditions has been reported. This observed dimer-tomonomer transition very likely follows the protonation of lumenal glutamates upon the drop in pH and is accompanied by a change in PSII supercomplex localisation. PsbS dimers are preferentially found in association with the PSII core, whereas PsbS monomers co-localise with LHC-II.Despite the identification of !pH, Zea and PsbS as key players in qE, both the nature of the quencher(s) as well as the underlying molecular mechanism leading to excess energy dissipation still remain unknown. Several models have been put forward to explain the reversible switch in the antenna from an energy-transmitting to a quenched state. Proposals include a simple pigment exchange of Vio for Zea, and aggregation or an internal conformational change of LHC-II. Charge transfer (CT)quenching in the minor LHCs or quenching by carotenoid dark state (Car S1)-Chl interactions have also been suggested. However, none of these qE models has so far been capable of accommodating all the physiological observations and available experimental data. Most importantly, the function of PsbS remains an enigma. A recent qE model suggested that monomerisation of PsbS enables the protein to transiently bind a carotenoid and form a quenching unit with a Chl of a PSII LHC. In view of the various proposed qE mechanisms, this thesis aimed at understanding the interplay of the different qE components and the contribution of the PSII subunits LHC-II, the minor LHCs and PsbS to qE. The initial approach was to investigate the properties of the PSII subunits in the most simple in vitro model system, namely in detergent solution. For this purpose, LHC-II was isolated either from native source or refolded from recombinantly produced protein. Investigation of the minor LHCs and PsbS required heterologous expression and refolding. In addition, experiments were performed on aggregated LHC-II. Aggregates of LHC-II have been used as a popular model system for qE because they exhibit highly quenched Chl fluorescence. At the final stage of this doctoral work, a more sophisticated model system to approximate the thylakoid membrane was developed by reconstitution of the PSII subunits LHC-II and PsbS into liposomes. This system not only allowed for investigation of these membrane proteins in their native environment, but also for mimicking the xanthophyll cycle by distribution of Zea within the membrane as well as !pH by outside buffer exchange. The role of Zea in qE was first investigated with detergent solubilised antenna proteins. The requirement of this xanthophyll for qE is well-known, but the specific contribution to the molecular quenching mechansim is unclear. Previous work had shown that replacement of Vio for Zea in LHC-II was not sufficient to induce Chl fluorescence quenching in Zea-LHC-II, as suggested by the so-called molecular gearshift mechanism. However, by means of selective two-photon excitation spectroscopy, an increase in electronic interactions between Car S1 and Chls was observed for LHC-II upon lowering the pH of the detergent buffer. Electronic Car S1-Chl coupling became even stronger when Zea-LHC-II was probed. The extent of Car S1-Chl coupling correlated directly with the extent of Chl fluorescence quenching, in a similar way as observed previously in live plants under high-light conditions. However, very similar results were obtained with LHC-II aggregates. This implied that the increase in electronic interactions and fluorescence quenching was independent of Zea and low pH. Further experiments on aggregates of LHC-II Chl mutants indicated that the targeted pigments were also not essential for the observed effects. It is proposed that the same molecular mechanism causes an increase in electronic Car S1-Chl interactions and Chl fluorescence quenching in Zea-LHC-II at low pH as well as in aggregated LHC-II. Most likely, surface exposed pigments form random quenching centres in both cases. On the other hand, it was possible that Zea could act as a direct quencher of excess excitation energy in the minor LHCs. However, enrichment of refolded CP29, CP26 and CP24 with Zea did not lead to a change in the Chl excited state lifetime. Formation of a carotenoid radical cation, previously implied in CT quenching, was also not observed, although artificial generation of such a radical cation was principally possible as shown for CP29. During the course of this work, a study reporting the formation of Zea radical cations in minor LHCs was published. Therefore, Zea-enriched minor LHCs were again investigated on the experimental apparatus used in the reported study. Indeed, the presence of at least one carotenoid radical cation for each minor complex was detected. It is suggested that either the preparation method of incubating the refolded minor LHCs with Zea in contrast to refolding the complexes with only Zea and lutein causes the observed differences or that the observed spectral radical cation signatures are due to experimental artifacts. While the experiments with LHC-II and the minor LHCs gave useful insights into the putative qE mechanism, the quencher site and the mode of action of Zea could still not be unambiguously identified. Most importantly, these studies could not explain the function of the qE keyplayer PsbS. Therefore, the focus of the work was shifted to PsbS protein production, purification and characterisation. In view of inconsistent reports on the pigment binding capacity of this PSII subunit, refolding trials with and without photosynthetic pigments were conducted. The formation of a specific pigmentprotein complex typical for other LHCs was not observed and neither was the earlier reported “activation” of Zea for qE by binding to this protein. Nevertheless, PsbS refolded without pigments displayed secondary structure content in agreement with previous studies, indicating pigment-independent folding. Reconstitution of pigmentfree, refolded PsbS into liposomes confirmed that the protein is stable in the absence of pigments. Zea distributed in PsbS-containing liposomes also showed no spectral alteration that would indicate its “activation”. With the ability to reconstitute PsbS, it was then possible to proceed to modelling qE in a proteoliposome system. For this purpose, PsbS was co-reconstituted with LHC-II, which has been reported to interact with PsbS. One-photon excitation (OPE) and two-photon excitation (TPE) spectroscopy measurements were performed on LHC-II- and LHC-II/PsbS-containing liposomes. This enabled both quantification of Chl fluorescence quenching as well as determination of the extent of electronic Car S1-Chl interactions. The effect of Zea was investigated by incorporating it in the proteoliposome membrane. It was shown that Zea alone was not able to induce significant Chl fluorescence quenching when only LHC-II was present. However, when LHC-II and PsbS were co-reconstituted, pronounced Chl fluorescence quenching and an increase in electronic Car S1-Chl interactions were observed and both effects were enhanced when Zea was present. Western blot analysis indicated the presence of a LHC-II/PsbS-heterodimer in these proteoliposomes. In addition to the OPE and TPE measurements, the average Chl fluorescence lifetime was determined in detergent-free buffer at neutral pH and directly after buffer exchange to low pH. No significant changes in the average lifetime were observed for LHC-II proteoliposomes when either Zea was present or after exchange for low pH buffer. This indicated that Zea alone cannot act as a direct quencher, which concurs with the OPE measurements. Moreover, the complex was also properly reconstituted as no aggregation or significant Chl fluorescence quenching were observed. The average lifetime was not significantly affected in LHC-II/PsbS-proteoliposomes, independent of Zea or pH. However, a shortlived component in the presence of a long-lived component was not resolvable with the time resolution of the fluorescence lifetime apparatus.
Implications for qE model systems and the in vivo quenching mechanism are discussed based on the experiments in detergent solution, on LHC-II aggregates and with the proteoliposome model system.
Zwei der wichtigsten Leistungen eines sich entwickelnden Embryos sind der Aufbau des Blutkreislauf- und des Nervensystems. Beide Systeme sind hierarchisch organisierte Strukturen, deren Verzweigungen nahezu alle Teile des Körpers erreichen. Es gibt eine zunehmende Zahl von Hinweisen darauf, dass ihre Entwicklung eng miteinander verknüpft ist, nach ähnlichen Prinzipien verläuft und verwandte molekulare Mechanismen verwendet. Die Entstehung eines funktionellen vaskulären Netzwerks erfordert Signale, die Prozesse wie die Lenkung und die Verzweigung von Gefäßen in den Zielgeweben kontrollieren. Ähnliche Anforderungen werden an wachsende Axone bei der Knüpfung der Verbindungen des Nervensystems während der Embryonalentwicklung gestellt. Einige der Faktoren, die die Lenkung der Axone kontrollieren, spielen auch eine ähnliche Rolle in der vaskulären Entwicklung. Lenkungsmoleküle, die eine Richtungsinformation vermitteln, sind für die Wegfindung der Axone besonders wichtig. Die größte Familie solcher Lenkungsmoleküle wird durch die Semaphorine gebildet. Semaphorine können in acht Klassen unterteilt werden, deren gemeinsames Merkmal eine konservierte Semaphorin-Domäne ist und die unterschieden werden anhand ihrer Klassen-spezifischen carboxyterminalen Domänen. Die Semaphorin-Familie umfasst sowohl sekretierte als auch membrangebundene Proteine. Die am besten charakterisierten hiervon sind die sekretierten Klasse 3 Semaphorine. Eine Kombination von in vitro und in vivo Ansätzen zeigte, dass die Klasse 3 Semaphorine an der Steuerung der Axon- und Dendritenlenkung, der Bildung von Axonbündeln und der neuronalen Migration während der Entwicklung des Nervensystems beteiligt sind. Sie agieren hauptsächlich als repulsiv wirkende Signale, die Axone aus Regionen ausschließen, von den Geweben weg, in denen sie exprimiert sind. Diese Wirkung wird über die Semaphorin-Domäne vermittelt. Verschiedene Hinweise deuten auf eine Beteiligung von Semaphorinen an der Entwicklung des vaskulären Systems. Sowohl homozygote Sema3a- als auch Sema3c-Mausnullmutanten sterben nach der Geburt aufgrund kardiovaskulärer Defekte. Darüber hinaus binden die Rezeptoren für die Klasse 3 Semaphorine, Neuropilin-1 (Nrp-1) und –2 (Nrp-2), einige Isoformen des vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktors (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF). Neuropilin-1 und Neuropilin-2-defiziente Mäuse und Neuropilin-1/-2-Doppelmutanten weisen Defekte des Gefäßsystems auf, wie z.B. eine Rückbildung der neuralen Vaskularisierung und Abweichungen in der Entwicklung des Herzens und der großen Gefäße. Die membrangebundenen Semaphorine sind bisher nur wenig untersucht, da zuverlässige in vitro Assays fehlen. Somit ist ein genetischer Ansatz der beste Weg, die physiologische Funktion dieser Proteine zu untersuchen. Aus diesen Gründen war die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit, durch homologe Rekombination in embryonalen Stammzellen eine Mauslinie herzustellen, die ein Nullallel des membrangebundenen Sema5a-Gens trägt. Für diesen Ansatz wurde ein Mitglied der Klasse 5 Semaphorine gewählt, da es nur zwei Mitglieder dieser Klasse im Mausgenom gibt, die weitgehend komplementäre Expressionsmuster aufweisen. Damit unterscheiden sie sich von den anderen Klassen der Semaphorine, deren Mitglieder stark überlappende Expressionsmuster zeigen. Dies verringert die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer gegenseitigen funktionellen Kompensation nach Mutation eines Gens. Die Klasse 5 Semaphorine sind auch deshalb besonders interessant, da sie die einzigen sind, die sowohl in Vertebraten als auch in Invertebraten vertreten sind. Sie sind gekennzeichnet durch sieben carboxyterminale Typ 1-Thrombospondinmodule (TSP) in ihrer extrazellulären Domäne. TSPs wurden ursprünglich in den Proteinen Thrombospondin 1 und 2 gefunden, in denen sie das Auswachsen von Neuriten verschiedener Nervenzelltypen fördern. Dies lässt vermuten, dass Klasse 5 Semaphorine sowohl inhibierende als auch stimulierende Effekte haben könnten, in dem sie unterschiedliche Rezeptoren mit der Semaphorin-Domäne oder der TSPs aktivieren. Das Expressionsmuster von Sema5A und die bekannte Funktion von Semaphorinen in der Ausbildung neuronaler Verbindungen lassen es sinnvoll erscheinen, bei der Untersuchung der mutanten Tiere den Schwerpunkt auf die Entwicklung des Nerven- und des Gefäßsystems zu legen. Aufgrund technischer Schwierigkeiten konnte innerhalb der Bearbeitungszeit dieser Doktorarbeit nur der Phänotyp des vaskulären Systems untersucht werden. Die Inaktivierung des Sema5a-Gens wurde durch die Verwendung eines ‚Targeting’-Vektors erreicht, welcher die Exone 4 und 5 des Sema5a-Gens durch eine Neomycin-Selektionskassette ersetzte. Aus 144 untersuchten ES-Zellklonen wurden drei ES-Zellinien mit einem rekombinierten Sema5a-Locus identifiziert. Zwei der positiven Klone wurden zur Herstellung einer chimären Maus durch die Morula-Aggregationsmethode verwendet. Mit einem der Klone konnte eine männliche Chimäre erzeugt werden, die nach Kreuzung mit NMRI-Wildtyptieren die Mutation an die Nachkommen weitergab. Der Verlust der Proteinexpression in homozygoten Sema5a-Mutanten wurde durch Westernblot-Analyse von Zellmembranpräparationen homozygoter Embryonen unter Verwendung eines Antikörpers gegen das zytoplasmatische Ende von Sema5A bestätigt. Dieses Ergebnis bestätigte, dass die Deletion des vierten und fünften Exons des Sema5a-Gens ein Nullallel hervorbringt. Nach Verpaarungen heterozygoter Mutanten konnten keine Neugeborenen identifiziert werden, die homozygot für das mutierte Allel waren. Homozygte Mutanten starben zwischen E11,5 und E12,5 der Embryonalentwicklung, der Verlust von Sema5A ist also embryonal letal. Die Morphologie der homozygoten Tiere zeigte keinen offensichtlichen Unterschied zu den heterozygoten Embryonen oder zu Wildtyp-Geschwistern auf. Frühe embryonale Musterbildungsprozesse in Sema5a-Nullmutanten sind also nicht gestört. Ein Tod bei dieser Entwicklungsstufe deutet auf einen Defekt in der Entwicklung des Blutgefäßsystems hin, da die Embryonalstadien zwischen E9 und E13 besonders wichtig für die Ausbildung dieser Gefäße sind und viele Mutationen, die Herz und Blutgefäßen beeinträchtigen, den Tod der Embryonen in diesem Stadium bewirken. Das embryonale Blutgefäßsystem in E10,5 und E11,5 Embryonen wurde durch immunhistochemische Färbungen ganzer Embryonen unter Verwendung eines spezifischen gegen das Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule (PECAM) gerichteten Antikörpers dargestellt, welches in vaskulären Endothelzellen exprimiert ist. Die allgemeine Architektur des Gefäßsystems war in homo- und heterozygoten Mutanten ähnlich und wies weder an E10,5 noch an E11,5 besondere Abweichungen auf. Es wurden bei der Lage und der Anzahl intersomitischer Gefäße, der Entwicklung der dorsalen Aorta oder der Vaskularisierung der Extremitätenanlagen keine Abweichungen festgestellt. Morphologische Defekte konnten jedoch bei E10,5 in den Verästelungen der Blutgefäße detektiert werden, die von den Hauptvenen der Cranialregion abzweigen. Die Verzweigungen waren geringer ausgeprägt als in heterozygoten oder Wildtyp-Vergleichstieren. Insbesondere zeigte sich eine Verringerung der Anzahl sekundärer und tertiärer Verzweigungen. In dem sich entwickelnden Embryo führt die wiederholte Verzweigung von Ästen der Hauptvenen zu einem hierarchisch gegliederten Netzwerk großer Gefäße in der Region des medialen Kopfes. Während die Ausbildung dieses Netzwerkes in den Sema5a-/--Tieren beeinträchtigt ist, erscheint die Organisation der kleinen Gefäße in den mehr dorsal und peripher gelegenen Regionen des Kopfes normal. In heterozygoten und homozygoten Mutanten bilden die kleineren Gefäße ein dicht verzweigtes Netzwerk. Die Verminderung der Komplexität der größeren Gefäße konnte in allen untersuchten Nullmutanten beobachtet werden. Es variierte jedoch die Penetranz des Phänotyps. In allen Fällen war die Anzahl primärer Verzweigungen unverändert, während die Anzahl der sekundären und der tertiären Verzweigungen zu unterschiedlichen Graden reduziert war. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigte sich im Verzweigungsmuster von heterozygoten Mutanten und beim Wildtyp nur eine geringe Variabilität zwischen individuellen Embryonen. Dies belegt, dass die Verminderung des Verzweigungsgrades größerer Gefäße nicht innerhalb der normalen Variabilität liegt, sondern durch die Inaktivierung des Sema5a-Gens verursacht wird. Dieser Phänotyp ist in späteren Stadien sogar deutlicher ausgeprägt. In E11,5 Embryonen waren die Stämme der großen Blutgefäße in den Nullmutanten weniger komplex und in einigen Fällen trat sogar eine Reduzierung der Anzahl primärer Verzweigungen auf. Diese spätere Verminderung der Anzahl bereits ausgebildeter primärer Verzweigungen legt nahe, dass der Phänotyp durch eine Rückbildung von Verzweigungen aufgrund möglicher Defizite in deren Reifung und/oder Stabilisierung erfolgt. Die interessanteste Besonderheit der vaskulären Defekte in den Nullmutanten liegt in ihrer regionalen Spezifität. Bis hier ist das Netzwerk großer Gefäße, welches der anterioren Hauptvene entspringt, das einzige Gefäßsystem, in dem Abweichungen entdeckt wurden. Dieses Netzwerk wird durch die strukturelle Umbildung des primären kapillaren Plexuses gebildet. Zwischen E9,5 und E12 sprießen Zweige rostral aus der Hauptvene, um ein hierarchisch organisiertes Netzwerk von Gefäßen zu bilden. Die Umbildung des primären kapillaren Plexus in den mehr rostral und ventral gelegenen Kopfregionen führt zu der Bildung eines hochverzweigten vaskulären Netzwerkes, welches jedoch bei E10,5 noch nicht hierarchisch organisiert erscheint. Die Signale, die für diesen unterschiedlichen Ablauf der Musterbildung während der Entwicklung des Gefäßsystems des Kopfes verantwortlich sind, sind noch unbekannt. Die besonderen Defekte in der stereotypischen Organisation der cranialen Gefäße in Sema5a-Mutanten legt nahe, dass Sema5A eines dieser Signale sein könnte. Es könnte Teil eines Rezeptor/Ligandenkomplexes sein, welcher positionelle Signale für das Verzweigen und das Wachstum großer Gefäße in rostraler Richtung liefert. Sema5A könnte die Bildung von Verzweigungen durch die Regulierung der Wanderung endothelialer Zellen, ihrer Proliferation oder ihrer Interaktion mit unterstützenden Zellen oder der extrazellulären Matrix kontrollieren. Sema5A könnte Teil eines neuen Signalweges sein oder als Teil eines der bekannten Signalwegs wirken, welcher die Entwicklung des Gefäßsystems reguliert. Einer der Signalwege, die essentiell für die Gefäßbildung sind, wird durch VEGF und Angiopoietin (Ang-1) reguliert. Sowohl in VEGF-, als auch in Ang-1-Mutanten ist die Gefäßumbildung im Kopf beeinträchtigt. Insbesondere erscheint das Netzwerk kleiner Gefäße in den Ang-1 Nullmutanten als nur nur teilweise restrukturiert und die großen Gefäße als weniger komplex. Das Verzweigungsmuster der großen Gefäße in den Ang-1- Nullmutanten ähnelt auffallend dem der Sema5a-Nullmutanten. Eine zweite Ähnlichkeit in den Phänotypen von Ang-1- und Sema5a-Mutanten zeigt sich in der Reduzierung der primären Verzweigungen, welche in den Sema5a-Nullmutanten bei E11,5 beobachtet wird. Hier könnte die Verminderung aus einer Rückbildung von Gefäßen resultieren, wie sie auch typischerweise in Mutanten für Ang-1 oder dessen Rezeptor auftritt. Diese Beobachtung legt nahe, dass Sema5A ein neuer Teilnehmer innerhalb des Ang-1-Signalweges ist, welcher die Auswirkung von Ang-1 auf die endothelialen Zellen der großen Gefäße entweder vermittelt oder moduliert und dadurch das spezifische Muster der Blutgefäße des Kopfes beeinflußt. Mit dieser Doktorarbeit wird zum ersten Mal eine funktionelle Untersuchung des Klasse 5 Semaphorins Sema5A vorgestellt. Die phänotypische Untersuchung von Mäusen, die Nullallele für Sema5a-Gens tragen ergab, dass dieses membrangebundene Protein essentiell für die embryonale Entwicklung ist. Es ist an der Musterbildung des Gefäßsystems beteiligt. Seine Aufgabe besteht möglicherweise darin, die Bereitstellung positioneller Signale für die Ausbildung von Gefäßverzweigungen zu gewährleisten. Einige grundlegende Fragen werden durch diesen Phänotyp aufgeworfen. Sowohl die Ursache für die embryonale Sterblichkeit als auch die zellulären Prozesse, welche in den Sema5a-Nullmutanten beeinträchtigt sind, müssen noch beschrieben werden. Unbekannt ist ebenfalls, ob zusätzlich zu der hier beschriebenen Rolle von Sema5A in der Gefäßbildung dieses an der Entwicklung des Nervensystems beteiligt ist. Die ersten Daten über die physiologische Rolle von Sema5A, welche mit dieser Arbeit vorgelegt werden, öffnen den Weg für weitergehende Untersuchungen über die Funktion des Proteins während der Embrionalentwicklung. Das hier erstmals vorgestellte Modellsystem ermöglicht es, Sema5A regulierte zelluläre Mechanismen zu untersuchen. Zusätzlich stellt es ein Werkzeug zur Verfügung, um die funktionelle Beziehung zwischen der Entwicklung des kardiovaskulären Systems und des Nervensystems zu untersuchen. Damit können die Aufgaben der Semaphorin-Proteinfamilie, die an diesen beiden wichtigen Prozessen beteiligt sind, näher charakterisiert werden.
In the absence of apparent mutations, alteration of gene expression patterns represents the key mechanism by which normal cells evolve to cancer cells.
Gene expression is tightly regulated by posttranscriptional processes. Within this context, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) represent fundamental factors, since they control mechanisms, such as mRNA-stabilization, -translation and -degradation. Human antigen R (HuR) was among the first RBPs that have been directly associated to carcinogenesis. HuR modulates the stability and translation of mRNAs which encode proteins facilitating various ‘hallmarks of cancer’, namely proliferation, evasion of growth suppression, angiogenesis, cell death resistance, invasion and metastasis. Furthermore, it is well established that tumor-promoting inflammation contributes to tumorigenesis. In this process, monocytes are attracted to the site of the tumor and educated towards a tumor-promoting macrophage phenotype. While HuR has been extensively studied in various tumor cell types, little is known about HuR in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Thus, the aim of my work was to characterize the contribution of HuR to the development of cancer characteristics in HCC. I was particularly interested to investigate if HuR facilitates tumor-promoting inflammation, since a role for HuR has not been described in this context. To this end, I depleted HuR in HepG2 cells (HuR k/d) and used a co-culture model of HepG2 tumor spheroids and infiltrating monocytes to study the impact of HuR on the tumor microenvironment. I could show that depletion of HuR resulted in the reduction of cell numbers. Additionally, the expression of proliferation marker KI-67 and proto-oncogene c-Myc was reduced, supporting a proliferative role of HuR. Furthermore, exposure to cytotoxic staurosporine elevated apoptosis in HuR k/d cells compared to control cells. Concomitantly, the expression of the anti-apoptotic mediator B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2) was markedly reduced in the HuR k/d cells, pointing to an involvement of HuR in cell survival processes.
Accordingly, a pro-survival function of HuR was also observed in tumor spheroids, since HuR k/d spheroids exhibited a larger necrotic core region at earlier time points and showed elevated numbers of dead cells compared to control (Ctr.) spheroids. Interestingly, HuR k/d spheroids isplayed reduced numbers of infiltrated macrophages, suggesting that HuR contributes to a tumor-promoting, inflammatory microenvironment by recruiting monocytes/macrophages to the tumor site. Aiming at identifying HuR-regulated factors responsible for the recruitment of monocytes, I found reduced levels of the chemokine interleukin 8 (IL-8) in supernatants of HuR k/d spheroids, supporting a critical involvement of HuR in the chemoattraction of monocytes. Analyzing supernatants of co-cultures of macrophages and HuR k/d or Ctr. spheroids revealed additional differences in chemokine secretion patterns. Interestingly, protein levels of many chemokines were elevated in co-cultures of HuR k/d spheroids compared to control co-cultures. Albeit enhanced chemokine secretion was observed, less monocytes are recruited into HuR k/d spheroids, further underlining the necessity of HuR in cancer related monocyte/macrophage attraction and infiltration. Differences between chemokine profiles of mono- and co-cultured spheroids could be attributable to changes in spheroid-derived chemokines as a result of the crosstalk with the immune cells. Provided the chemokines originate from monocytes/macrophages, the different secretion patterns suggest that HuR contributes to the modulation of the functional phenotype of infiltrated macrophages, since the tumorenvironment is critically involved in the shaping of macrophage phenotypes. Regions of low-oxygen (hypoxia) represent another critical feature of tumors. Therefore, I next analyzed the impact of HuR on the hypoxic response. Loss of HuR attenuated hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 2α expression after exposure to hypoxia, while HIF-1α protein levels remained unaltered. Considering previous results of our group, showing that HIF-2α depletion (HIF-2α k/d) resulted in the enhanced expression of HIF-1α protein, I aimed to determine the involvement of HuR in the compensatory upregulation of HIF-1α protein in HIF-2α k/d cells. I could demonstrate that not only total HuR protein levels, but specifically cytoplasmic HuR was elevated in HIF-2α depleted cells pointing to enhanced HuR activity. Silencing HuR in HIF-2α deficient cells attenuated enhanced HIF-1α protein expression, thus confirming a direct role of HuR in the compensatory upregulation of HIF-1α. This as also reflected on HIF-1α target gene expression. I further investigated the mechanism underlying the compensatory HIF-1α expression in HIF-2α deficient cells. Analyzing HIF-1α mRNA expression, I excluded enhanced HIF1-α transcription and stability to account for elevated HIF-1α expression in HIF-2α k/d cells. HIF-1α promoter activity assays confirmed the mRNA data. Furthermore, HIF-1α protein half-life was not elevated in HIF-2α k/d cells compared to control cells, indicating that HIF-1α protein stability is not altered in HIF-2α k/d cells. Analysis of the association of HIF-1α with the translational machinery using polysomal fractionation finally revealed an increased istribution of HIF-1α mRNA in the heavier polysomal fractions in HIF-2α k/d cells compared to control cells. Since augmented ribosome occupancy is an indicator for more efficient translation, I propose enhanced HIF-1α translation as underlying principle of the compensatory increase in HIF-1α protein levels in HIF-2α k/d cells. In summary, my results demonstrate that HuR is critical for the development of cancer characteristics in HCC. Future work analyzing the impact of HuR on tumor-promoting inflammation, specifically macrophage attraction and activation could provide new trategies to inhibit macrophage-driven tumor progression. Furthermore, I provide evidence that HuR contributes to the hypoxic response by regulating the expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α. Targeting single HIF-isoforms for tumor therapy should be carefully considered, because of their compensatory regulation when one α-subunit is depleted. Thus, therapeutic strategies targeting factors such as HuR that control both α-subunits and at the same time prevent compensation might be more promising.
The tumor suppressor programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4) exerts its function by inhibiting protein translation initiation. Specifically, it displaces the scaffold protein eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) from its binding to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). Thereby, Pdcd4 inhibits the helicase activity of eIF4A, which is necessary for the unwinding of highly structured 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often found in oncogenes like c-myc to make them accessible for the translation machinery and subsequent protein production. Overexpression of Pdcd4 inhibits tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo and inversely, Pdcd4 knockout mice show enhanced tumor formation. In line, Pdcd4 is lost in various tumor types and proposed as prognostic factor in colon carcinomas. Unlike most other tumor suppressors that are rendered nonfunctional by mutations (e.g., p53), Pdcd4 loss is not attributable to mutational inactivation. It is regulated via translational repression by microRNAs and increased degradation of the protein under tumor promoting, inflammatory conditions and mitogens. Specifically, proteasomal degradation of Pdcd4 is controlled by p70 S6 Kinase (p70S6K)-mediated phosphorylation in its degron sequence (serines 67, 71 and 76). Stimulation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by growth factors, hormones and cytokines initiates p70S6K activity. Phosphorylated Pdcd4 is subsequently recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase beta-transducin repeats-containing protein (β-TrCP) and marked with a polyubiquitin tail to be detected by the 26S proteasome for degradation. β-TrCP represents the substrate specific recognition subunit of the ubiquitin ligase complex responsible for protein-protein interaction with Pdcd4 as substrate for ubiquitin transfer and subsequent proteasomal disassembly.
The first part of the present work aimed at identifying novel stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4 in a high throughput screen (HTS). As assay design, a fragment of Pdcd4 from amino acid 39 to 91, containing the phosphorylation sensitive degron sequence, was fused to a luciferase reporter gene construct. Stable expression of this Pdcd4(39-91)luciferase (Pdcd4(39-91)luc) fusion protein in HEK 293 cells served as read-out for the Pdcd4 protein amount to be detected in a high throughput compatible cell-based assay. Loss of Pdcd4(39-91)luc was induced by treatment with 12-O-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), a phorbolester, which activates the PI3K signaling cascade leading to degradation of Pdcd4. The cut-off for hit definition was set at >50% activity in rescuing the Pdcd4(39-91)luc signal from TPA-induced degradation. Activity was calculated relative to the difference of DMSO- and TPA-treated cells (ΔDMSO-TPA = RLUDMSO-RLUTPA). Initial screening of a protein kinase inhibitor library (PKI) revealed hit substances expected to show Pdcd4 stabilizing activity by inhibition of kinases involved in Pdcd4 downregulation, e.g., the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, the PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 and the PKC inhibitors GF 109203X and Ro 31-8220.
The Molecular Targets Laboratory (MTL) of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, USA, hosts one of the largest collections of crude natural product extracts as well as a big substance libraries from pure synthetic sources. Screening of over 15 000 pure compounds and over 135 000 natural product extracts identified 46 pure and 42 extract hits as Pdcd4 stabilizers. For nine synthetic and six natural product derived compounds (after bioassay-guided fractionation), dose-dependent activities for recovering the TPA-induced Pdcd4(39-91)luc loss defined IC50s in the low micromolar range. Most importantly, these compounds were confirmed to stabilize endogenous Pdcd4 protein levels from forced degradation as well. This result proved the assay design to be highly representative for endogenous cellular mechanisms regulating Pdcd4 protein stability. The next step was to stratify the hit substances according to their likely mechanism of action to be located either up- or downstream of the p70S6K-mediated phosphorylation of Pdcd4. Therefore, phosphorylation of S6, as proto-typical p70S6K target, was analyzed and uncovered two natural derived compounds to influence p70S6K activity. Four substances did not affect p70S6K phosphorylation activity and were therefore considered to stabilize Pdcd4 by acting downstream, i.e. on the β-TrCP-mediated proteasomal degradation.
In the second part of this work, one of these compounds, namely the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin, isolated by bioassay-guided fraction from the active extract of Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae, was further characterized in detail with respect to its molecular mechanism of action. Erioflorin dose-dependently protected both Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 protein from TPA-induced degradation with IC50s of 1.28 and 2.64 μM, respectively. Pdcd4 stabilizing activity was maximal at 5 μM erioflorin. Up to this concentration, erioflorin was verified not to inhibit p70S6K activity. In addition, it was observed that erioflorin rescued Pdcd4(39-91)luc from both, wild type and constitutively active p70S6K-mediated downregulation. Only wild type p70S6K was inhibitable by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin which served as an upstream acting control. To study the next section of Pdcd4 regulation, i.e. recognition by the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 were immunoprecipitated from whole cell extracts with the corresponding antibodies. In this key experiment, treatment with TPA increased overexpressed β-TrCP binding to both and this coimmunoprecipitation could be strongly reduced by erioflorin treatment. This result strongly pointed to an inhibitory mechanism of the β-TrCP specific binding to Pdcd4 by erioflorin. In addition, erioflorin disrupted the binding of in vitro transcribed/translated β-TrCP to Pdcd4 in an in vitro interaction assay to exclude nonspecific intracellular signals. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of Pdcd4 was decreased by erioflorin treatment as well. To clarify questions regarding specificity of erioflorin for the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, stability of another important β-TrCP target was explored, i.e. the tumor suppressor inhibitor of kappa B alpha (IκBα). Indeed, the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-mediated loss of IκBα could be prevented by erioflorin cotreatment. On the other hand, the E3 ubiquitin ligase von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL) was left unaffected as its target hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) could not be stabilized from oxygen-dependent degradation by erioflorin treatment. These results argued strongly for erioflorin being a specific inhibitor of β-TrCP-mediated protein degradation. Functional consequences of erioflorin treatment were investigated by observing its influence on the transcriptional activities of the transformation marker activator protein 1 (AP-1, an indirect downstream target of Pdcd4) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB which is directly inhibited by IκBα). Indeed, erioflorin showed significant inhibition of AP-1 and NF-κB reporter constructs at 5 μM, a concentration for which an impact on cell viability was excluded. Finally to characterize the significance of erioflorin in a cell-based tumorigenesis assay, the highly invasive colon carcinoma cell line RKO was tested in a two dimensional migration assay. Erioflorin was discovered to significantly lower cell migration in a wound closure assay.
In conclusion, development of a high throughput compatible cell-based reporter assay successfully identified novel substances from pure synthetic and natural product derived background as potent stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4. In addition, this work aimed at elucidating the detailed mechanism of action of the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin from Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae. Erioflorin was discovered to inhibit the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, thereby preventing protein degradation of tumor suppressors like Pdcd4 and IκBα. This may offer the possibility to more specifically target protein degradation and generate less adverse side effects by blocking a particular E3 ubiquitin ligase compared to general proteasome inhibition.
ABCB9 is a peptide transporter belonging to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter subfamily B. Due to its high sequence identity to the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) the protein was named TAP-like (TAPL). The primary aim of this PhD thesis was the functional characterization of the TAPL transport complex. Despite the lack of TAPL function in the classical MHC class I pathway an involvement of TAPL in antigen presentation was still suggested. Apart from the crucial role of TAP for peptide delivery into the ER, TAP-independent translocation pathways in professional antigen presenting cells (pAPC) have been proposed, but not identified so far. Remarkably, TAPL mRNA and protein expression is strongly induced during differentiation of monocytes to immature and mature dendritic cells. This result was confirmed in the promonocytic cell line THP-1, which was used as a model system for monocyte to macrophage differentiation. By using quantitative immunofluorescence microscopy and subcellular fractionation, TAPL was detected in the lysosomal compartment co-localizing with the lysosome associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP-2) thus excluding the ER-localization formerly reported. Furthermore, by in vitro assays, a TAPL-specific and ATPdependent translocation of peptides into isolated lysosomes was demonstrated. Hence, TAPL is a candidate mediating peptide transport in alternative antigen presentation pathways in pAPCs. The presence of an extra N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD0) lacking sequence homology to any known protein distinguishes TAPL from most other ABC transporters of its subfamily. By dissecting the TAPL translocation complex into its four putative transmembrane helices containing TMD0 and the core complex, distinct functions to the core complex and TMD0 were assigned. The core-TAPL complex composed of six predicted transmembrane helices and the nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) was expressed transiently in HeLa or stably in Raji cells. Crude membranes containing core-TAPL showed the same peptide transport activity as wt-TAPL demonstrating that the six core helices and the NBD are sufficient for peptide transport. This result also shows that the core transport complex is correctly targeted to and assembled in the membrane. Strikingly, in contrast to the wt transporter, the core complex localizes only partially to lysosomes and is mistargeted to the plasma membrane as observed by immunofluorescence microscopy and confirmed biochemically by cell surface biotinylation. Thus, a crucial role for TMD0 in proper subcellular targeting can be postulated. The vast majority of biological processes are mediated by protein complexes, hence characterization of such protein-protein-interactions is essential for understanding protein function on the cellular level. To identify interaction partners of TAPL, the transporter was isolated by tandem affinity purification. By tandem mass spectrometry the membrane proteins LAMP-1 and LAMP-2 were deciphered as specific proteins interacting with wt-TAPL. Notably, core-TAPL lacks these interactions indicating a role for TMD0 in recruiting other proteins. These results were verified for endogenous TAPL by co-immunoprecipitation. Using cells deficient in LAMP-1 and/or in LAMP-2 an escort function for the LAMP proteins was excluded. Very importantly, the physiological function of the LAMP-1and LAMP-2 interaction with TAPL is an increase in stability, since in their absence half-life of TAPL is drastically reduced.
The display of foreign polypeptides and proteins on the surface of viruses or cells provides an important tool for the engineering of biomolecules and the analysis of their interactions with binding partners. The most extensively used display platform is the coat protein of the filamentous bacteriophage (Smith, 1985). Phage display libraries have often been selected for polypeptides, e.g. single chain (sc) antibodies that bind to a protein of interest, but in vivo selection could only be demonstrated for peptides so far. An alternative display platform is the retrovirus murine leukemia virus (MLV). Here, polypeptides are displayed at the N-terminus of the viral envelope glycoprotein. Proof of principle for this platform was demonstrated for protease substrate libraries, which can be selected through coupling proteolytic activation with viral infectivity (Buchholz et al., 1998). Selection of the library CX4A on living cells resulted in viruses with more than three orders of magnitude improved spreading efficiency through tumor cells (Hartl et al., 2005). Also scAb libraries have recently been displayed and selected using retroviruses (Urban et al., 2005). The library scFvlibxMo displays the repertoire of phage display preselected sc antibodies for laminin-1 binding. The retrovirus based selection process resulted in laminin-specific sc antibodies with improved expression levels in mammalian cells.
This thesis describes the in vivo (i.e. in mouse tumor models) selection of the C-X4-A and scFvlibxMo for tumor homing upon systemic delivery.
For selection of the protease substrate library C-X4-A a subcutaneous tumor was induced in SCID mice followed by three systemic injections of the library. The selection process was monitored over a period of 34 days. After the incubation period mice were sacrificed and virus load in organs and tumor determined. PCR analysis after 34 days showed that virus from the library had preferentially infected the tumor. Sequence analysis showed the selection of protease substrates with the most prominent one with a frequency of over 65%. The four most prominent protease substrate variants where reconstituted into the original viral backbone for further investigation (C-SK-A, C-HI-A, C-HM-A and C-HS-A). Interestingly, these viruses exhibited a reduced spreading capacity in vitro on HT1080 cells as compared to the C-AK-A virus, which had previously been selected on HT1080 cells. When assayed for tumor homing, however, viruses C-HI-A and C-HS-A had clearly improved in comparison to C-AK-A. Tumor tissue had been infected at rates of over 55% while virus load of extratumoral organs was very low (infection rates <0.7 for C-HS-A and <0.02 for C-HI-A). Tumor targeting capacity had thus been improved over 10-fold by the in vivo selection of the C-X4-A library.
The experimental set up for the in vivo selection of the scFvlibxMo library was performed according to that of the C-X4-A library. Fingerprint analysis of the selected viruses that infected tumor tissue resulted in the identification of seven antibody variants showing unique CDR3 sequences. Two prominent clones (M49T-A and M49T-B) were cloned back into the MoMLV genome for further analysis of the reconstituted viruses. While variant B bound laminin-1 efficiently, variant A was unable to do so, although it was selected at highest frequency (76%). Both reconstituted viruses were equally well infectious and spread through HT1080rec1 cells at a similar efficiency as MoMLV. In an in vivo competition experiment the selected viruses clearly out-competed a laminin-1 binding reference virus L36xMo for tumor homing. To understand the molecular driving forces behind the in vivo selection process the epitope of the selected scFv M49T-A was identified using a phage peptide library approach. In silico analysis led to the identification of a small group of possible antigens, including tenascin, fibronectin and collagen.
The data described in this thesis demonstrate that the retrovirus display platform is capable of allowing the in vivo selection of protease substrates and scFvs. Notably, the replication competence of the system introduced an additional level of complexity to the library. The performed in vivo selections significantly enhanced tumor tropism. Selective infection of tumor cells combined with transfer of anti-tumoral genes is an attractive strategy for cancer therapy being in focus of current research. The viruses selected in this thesis build prime candidates for targeted retrovirus based tumor therapy.
Retroviral vectors are powerful tools in clinical gene therapy as they integrate permanently into the target cell genome and thus guarantee long-term expression of transgenes. Therefore, they belong to the most frequently used application platforms in clinical gene therapy involving a broad range of different target cells and tissues. However, stable genomic integration of retroviral vectors can be oncogenic, as reported in several animal models and in clinical trials. In particular, γ-retroviral vectors, which derive from naturally mutagenic γ-retroviruses, integrate semirandomly into the host genome with regard to the target sequence, but have a preference for regions of active transcription and regulatory elements of transcriptionally active genes. The integration can result in overexpression of adjacent genes or disruption of ‘target’ gene expression. Moreover, γ-retroviral integration can cause modified transcripts and proteins through alternative or aberrant splicing or through premature termination of transcription.
Initially, the event of insertional mutagenesis and subsequent induction of leukemia by the genotoxicity of a γ-retroviral vector was described in a mouse model after genetic modification of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Vector-related activation and overexpression of the oncogene ecotropic viral integration site-1 (Evi1) fostered clonal outgrowth and leukemogenesis. Additional genotoxic events of γ-retroviral vectors were observed in clinical HSC gene therapy trials for X-linked severe combined immune deficiency (SCID-X1), chronic granulomatous disease (X-CGD), and Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome (WAS). But, genotoxicity induced by γ-retroviral vectors has never been described in clinical gene therapy trials involving adoptive transfer of genetically modified mature T lymphocytes. This fact is surprising, since T cells are long-lived and have a high capacity of self-renewal.
In a previous study, the susceptibility towards oncogenic transformation of mature T cells and HSCs after genetic modification was compared. It could be demonstrated that T-cell receptor (TCR)-polyclonal mature T cells are far less prone to transformation after γ-retroviral transfer of (proto-)oncogenes in vivo than HSCs. Additional experiments revealed that TCR-oligoclonal (OT-I and P14) mature T cells are transformable in the same setting and give rise to mature T-cell lymphomas (MTCLs).
In the present thesis, the susceptibility of mature T cells towards insertional mutagenesis was investigated. Within the first part of the thesis, retroviral integration sites (RISs) from 33 murine MTCLs were retrieved and subsequently analyzed in terms of integration pattern, detection of common integration sites (CIS) and gene ontology (GO). As these bioinformatic results demonstrated that insertional mutagenesis most likely contributed to mature T-cell lymphomagenesis, the susceptibility of mature T cells was directly assessed in a mouse model. Therefore, murine TCR-oligoclonal OT-I T cells were transduced with an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) encoding γ-retroviral vector and gene-modified T cells were transplanted into RAG1-/- mice. After 16 months, including one round of serial transplantation, a case of MTCL emerged. Tumor cells were characterized by CD3, CD8, TCR and ICOS expression. Integration site analysis via ligation-mediated polymerase chain reaction (LM-PCR) revealed a proviral insertion in the Janus kinase 1 (Jak1) gene. Subsequent overexpression of Jak1 could be demonstrated on transcriptional and protein level. Furthermore, T-cell lymphoma cells were characterized by an activated Jak/STAT-pathway as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) was highly phosphorylated. The overexpression of Jak1 was causally implicated in tumor growth promotion as specific pharmacological inhibition of Jak1 using Ruxolitinib significantly prolonged survival of mice transplanted with these Jak1-activated tumor cells. A concluding systematic metaanalysis of available gene expression data on human mature T-cell lymphomas/leukemias confirmed the relevance of Jak/STAT overexpression in sporadic human T-cell tumorigenesis.
This was the first reported case of an insertional mutagenesis event in mature T cells in vivo. Thus, the results obtained in this thesis underline the importance of long-term monitoring of genetically modified T cells in vivo and the evaluation of vector toxicology and safety in T-cell based gene therapies. In particular, the transduction of T cells with a recombinant TCR or CAR (chimeric antigen receptor) bears a risk enhancement, as normal T-cell homeostasis is perturbed besides the general risk of insertional mutagenesis.
In this thesis the integral membrane protein diacylglycerol kinase (DAGK) from E.coli is investigated with solid-state NMR. The aim is to gain an insight into the enzyme’s mechanism through integration of kinetic, structural and dynamic data. The biological function of DAGK is the transfer of the γ-phosphate group from Mg*ATP to diacylglycerol (DAG) building phosphatidic acid (PA)[6] as port of the membrane-derived oligosaccharide cycle[31,34]. Surprisingly, DAGK does not share structural or sequential similarities with other kinases[12]. Typical sequence motives found in other kinases, which catalyze phosphoryl transfer reactions, are not found[13]. In its physiological form DAGK is a homo-trimer with nine transmembrane helices, three catalytic centers and a size of 39.6 kDa.
First, the set-up of a real-time 31P MAS NMR experiment is shown. This experiment allows measuring in real-time the simultaneous ATP hydrolysis in the aqueous phase and lipid substrate phos-phorylation in the membrane phase with atomic resolution under magic angle spinning[56]. After fast transfer of the sample into the NMR spectrometer the enzymatic reaction is started with a temperature jump. This approach of real-time MAS NMR in a dual-phase system was demonstrated for the lipid substrate analogs dioleoyl- (DOG) and dibutyrylglycerol (DBG), with a C8 and C4 aliphatic chain, respectively. The combination of 31P direct and cross polarization functions as a dynamic filter. In the 31P direct polarized experiment nuclei in both phases are detected, while in the 31P cross polar-ized experiment, only nuclei in the membrane phase are detected. Rates for substrate turnover, i.e. degradation of γP-, βP, αP-ATP and build-up of βP-, αP-ADP, free phosphate as side reaction, and PA are obtained, which reveal a Michaelis-Menten behavior with regard to Mg*ATP and DBG. Here Mg*ATP and DBG follow a random-equilibrium model, where every substrate can bind indepen-dently from the other substrate. Analyses of the peak integrals from educts and products of the enzymatic reaction, revealed the stoichiometry of the reaction: 1.5 ATP molecules are used to phos-phorylate one DBG molecule. The excess of ATP is attributed to the basal ATPase activity. Further-more, experiments with ATPγS, usually regarded as a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, where carried out. Surprisingly, DAGK hydrolyzes ATPγS and also transfers the thio-phosphate group to the lipid acceptor DBG, which points to a certain degree of plasticity in the active center. A phosphorylated enzyme intermediate was not detected. These results suggest the building of a ternary complex of Mg*ATP, DBG and DAGK performing a direct-phosphoryl transfer reaction, without passing through a phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. Experiments with the transition state analog ortho-vanadate (Vi) showed a decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis activity from lipid substrate phosphorylation. This indicates a specific transfer site for the γ-phosphate group from ATP to DAG, which can be blocked by Vi.
A general disadvantage of NMR spectroscopy compared to other spectroscopic methods is its inherent low sensitivity. One possible starting point for the improvement of signal-to-noise per unit time is the reduction of the spin-lattice relaxation time of protons[209]. Usually 95 % of the experi-mental time is required for the relaxation of the 1H to equilibrium. The addition of paramagnetic species can be used to reduce the 1H T1[233]. In a comprehensive study four different paramagnetic agents were tested: Cu2+-EDTA, Cu2+-EDTA-tag, Gd3+-TTAHA and Gd3+-DOTA. The titration of these paramagnetic complexes showed the principle feasibility of this approach, but differences between the tested species exist. The most promising complex is Gd3+-DOTA which, at a concentration of 2 mM, causes a 10-time improvement of signal-to-noise ratio per unit time. This allowed measuring 2D 13C-13C correlation spectra of proteoliposomes in one tenth of the usual required experimental time (i.e. 10 hours vs. 4 days) with good signal-to-noise.
For the investigation of structural or dynamic changes in the protein upon substrate interaction with MAS NMR, the spectral properties CP efficiency and resolution of the DAGK in liposomes needed to be improved. The most critical step during sample preparation is the reconstitution of the membrane protein from detergent micelles into a membrane of synthetic lipids under detergent removal. For this procedure the important criteria are enzymatic activity, measured in a coupled ATPase assay[55], and homogeneity of the proteoliposomes, which was tested e.g. on a discontinuous sucrose step gradient. Therefore an extensive study was carried out, in which different detergents, lipids and lipid mixtures, techniques for detergent removal and different protein-to-lipid ratios were tested. A direct correlation between high ATPase activity and good resolution was not found. Moreover, active DAGK in a mixture of DMPC and cholesterol, which emulates the membrane features of a membrane containing DAG, showed the best CP efficiency and resolution.
The assignment of the protein backbone and amino acid side chains the first mandatory step towards the investigation of structural and dynamical features influencing and defining the enzymatic mechanism by MAS NMR. As the assignment procedure is very time consuming for a total protein, a special labeling scheme for DAGK was developed, which allows assigning most of the protein areas presumably involved in enzyme catalysis. The assignment of DAGK with solution NMR[132] was not transferable to the MAS NMR spectra. Most important for the assignment process were the unique pairs[335], two consecutive amino acids which only appear once in the amino acid sequence. These unique pairs served as anchor points. Five different multinuclear MAS NMR experiments (DARR, NCO, NCA, NCACX, NCOCX) were required for the sequential assignment. It was possible to assign 35 % of the total amino acid sequence with one sample and 8 experiments acquired at 850 MHz. The secondary structure analysis showed subtle differences to the DAGK assignment with solution NMR[132], which can be attributed to the different environment in lipid bilayers and detergent micelles.
Data about structural and dynamical changes under substrate interaction can reveal details about the enzymatic mechanism. Therefore changes in chemical shift in 2D heteronuclear correlation experiments in the apo-state and under substrate saturated conditions with the substrates Mg*AMP-PNP, a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, DOG, a mixture of Mg*AMP-PNP and DOG as well as inhibited by Vi were recorded. The most significant peak changes were observed at the interface membrane-cytoplasm as well as the the N-terminal amphipathic helix. The residues revealing chemical shift perturbations correlate with conserved residues or such residues, for which importance for catalysis and/or folding could be shown in mutation studies[8]. Especially noticeable were the changes at the amino acids Asn 72, Lys 64, His 87, Tyr 86 and Asp 95.
Beside changes of the chemical shift, changes of line width or signal doubling were observable. These changes can point to a correlation with dynamic reorientations in the μs-ms time regime, which are most relevant for enzymatic processes. The protein backbone dynamics in the apo-state as well as saturated with the substrates or inhibited with Vi were investigated with a 15N-CODEX experiment, which is based on the reorientation of the CSA tensor upon dynamical changes[350]. Specific effects of the different substrates or analogs on the protein backbone dynamic were revealed complementing the structural data and the chemical shift perturbation experiments.
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) involves spatially and temporally restricted molecular dynamics.
Although protein kinases and the actin cytoskeleton contribute to the process, whether and how
functions of kinases and actin are integrated remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that neural
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) and protein kinase CK2 form a complex and localize on
clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). N-WASP binds to and is phosphorylated by CK2, thereby reducing the
kinase activity of CK2. By contrast, N-WASP-promoted actin polymerization is decreased upon both
phosphorylation and binding of CK2. Knockdown of N-WASP and CK2, alone or in combination, results
in impaired endocytosis of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and increased cell-surface levels of EGF
receptor (EGFR). In order to rescue the phenotype of N-WASP-CK2 knockdown cells, both N-WASP and
CK2 activities and abilities to assemble in a complex are required. In summary, this study shows that the
N-WASP-CK2 complex integrates in a single circuit different activities contributing to CME of EGFR and
that the interplay between the two proteins optimizes this process.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the first two steps in leukotriene (LT) biosynthesis. In a two step reaction the enzyme oxygenates arachidonic acid (AA) to form the highly unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4) in dehydrating a hydroperoxide intermediate (20). LTA4 can then be further metabolized by two terminal synthases yielding either the potent chemoattractant leukotriene B4 (LTB4) or the cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs). 5-LO enzyme expression is primarily found in mature leukocytes (22) where it can either reside in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus associated with euchromatin (29). Its enzymatic activity is embedded in a complicated network in intact cells regulating LT synthesis by various factors dependent on the cell type and nature of stimulus. Factors such as the amount of free AA released by phospholipase A2 enzymes, levels of enzymes involved, catalytic activity per enzyme molecule and availability of different small molecules influence 5-LO activity (36).
The 5-LO derived LTs are lipid mediators which were shown to primarily mediate inflammatory and allergic reactions and their role in the pathogenesis of asthma is well defined. CysLTs are among the most potent bronchoconstrictors yet studied in man and play an important role in airway remodeling. LTB4 has no bronchoconstrictory effects in healthy and asthmatic humans but displays potent chemoattractant properties on neutrophils and increases leukocyte adhesion to the vessel wall endothelium (22). Therefore, LTB4 enhances the capacity of macrophages and neutrophils to ingest and kill microbes. In concert with LTB4, histamine and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) CysLTs are thought to maintain the tone of the human airways (82).
Besides their well studied role in asthma, 5-LO derived LTs have also been implicated to play a role in cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In contrast to healthy tissues, LT pathway enzymes and receptors were found to be abundantly expressed in cancer tissues, atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta, heart and carotid artery (86). Pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO potently suppressed tumour cell growth by inducing cell cycle arrest and triggering cell death via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway (92, 93). In several studies LTs were found to exhibit cardiovascular actions by promotion of plasma leakage in postcapillary venules, coronary artery vasoconstriction and impaired ventricular contraction leading to reduced coronary blood flow and cardiac output (24). Unfortunately, the precise molecular mechanisms through which LTs influence carcinogenesis and cardiovascular diseases are still incompletely understood.
In contrast, an increasing number of studies questions the correlation between 5-LO and cancer (95-97) since extreme LT concentrations were applied to induce proliferative effects in the majority of the publications. A few studies exist which show susceptibility towards 5-LO products in physiological concentrations or achieve anti-proliferation by applying low concentrations of 5-LO inhibitors (98) ...
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is an enzyme with a substantial role in inflammatory processes. In vitro kinase assays using [32P]-ATP in combination with mutagenesis have revealed that serine residues 271, 523 and 663 can be phosphorylated by MK2, PKA and ERK2 kinases, respectively. A few available reports regarding 5-LO protein sequence have covered up to 30% of the sequence after amino acid sequencing including Ser663. In LCMS/MS analyses of 5-LO tryptic digests from different cellular sources different peptides have been detected; however, none of the three phosphorylations has been detected and only Ser663 was included in the covered sequence.
As there was no comprehensive mass spectrometric analysis of 5-LO, the purpose of this study was to optimize the experimental conditions under which detection of the aforementioned phosphorylation events, as well as other possible post-translational modifications (PTMs), would be feasible. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) was used for peptide analysis of 5-LO cleaved either by chemical reagents or by proteases. Sequence coverage of 5-LO could be enhanced to be close to completion by combination of results from digestions by trypsin, AspN and chymotrypsin. In-gel trypsin digestion followed by in-solution AspN digestion proved to be a useful sample treatment for reproducible detection of the Ser271-containing peptide.
Nevertheless, in none of the examined cleavage protocols the sequence around Ser523 was detected reproducibly or with acceptable signal intensity for subsequent peptide fragmentation. Propionic anhydride and sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin cross-linker (EZ-linkTM), were used for derivatization of lysine side chains and hindrance of lysine residue recognition by trypsin. Phosphopeptide enrichment became possible after tryptic digestion of these samples, not only due to formation of an individual Ser523-containing peptide, but also because TiO2-mediated enrichment, which is performed in acidic pH, was not impaired by positively charged free lysine side chains. Additionally, biotinylation of lysine residues was exploited for an intermediate enrichment step of the lysine containing peptides, prior to TiO2 phosphopeptide enrichment.
MALDI-MS analysis after in-vitro phosphorylation of 5-LO by the three kinases showed that Ser271 was phosphorylated in the MK2 and PKA kinase assays, while Ser523 was phosphorylated only in the PKA kinase assay. Surpisingly, no phosphopeptides were detected in the in-vitro kinase assays with ERK2, even though the unmodified counterpart of the Ser663-containing peptide was easily detected. The detection limit for each of the three phosphorylation sites was determined by the use of custom made phosphopeptides and an amount of 0.06 pmol of phosphopeptide in 1 μg 5-LO (representing 0.5% phosphorylation rate) was sufficient in all cases for successful enrichment and detection by MS.
In-vitro kinase assays with [32P]-ATP were performed for some kinases that were expected to phosphorylate 5-LO according to in-silico data. Three members of the Src tyrosine kinase family (Fgr, Hck and Yes) and the Ser/Thr specific kinase DNA-PK used 5-LO as their substrate and mainly residues at the N-terminal part of 5-LO were detected phosphorylated by MS (e.g. Y42, Y53). Additional in-vitro assays for recombinant 5-LO modification included incubation with glutathione or compound U73122, previously described as inhibitor of 5-LO.
Since in-vitro assays might have generated artifacts, a method for 5-LO purification from human cells was sought, in order to examine the modification state of the protein in the cellular context. ATP-agarose affinity purification and anti-5-LO immunoprecipitation proved inappropriate for sample purification for MALDI-MS analysis. Consequently, two human cell lines that are able to express 5-LO (Rec-1 Blymphocytes and MM6 monocytes) were transduced with a DNA cassette that contained recombinant human 5-LO sequence with an attached N-terminal FLAG-tag. Anti-FLAG immunoprecipitation was then performed effectively in cell lysates and the precipitated FLAG-5-LO was separated by SDS-PAGE before MALDI-MS analysis.
The examined cell stimuli were expected to result to phosphorylation of 5-LO at Ser523 by PKA in Rec-1 cells and to phosphorylation of Ser271 and/or Ser663 in MM6 cells by activated MK2 and ERK2, respectively. Additionally, under the conditions of MM6 cell stimulation, Fgr, Hck and Yes kinases, which phosphorylated 5-LO in vitro, were expected to be activated and the possibility of 5-LO phosphorylation on tyrosine was investigated. Although immunoblotting results indicated that all the aforementioned phosphorylation events existed in the examined samples, MALDI-MS analysis verified only phosphorylation on Ser271 in differentiated MM6 cells, interestingly regardless of cell stimulation.
Finally, the primary amine derivatization procedure by EZ-linkTM was utilized for MS analysis of lysine rich proteins. In the past, chemical propionylation of histones had been employed prior to trypsin digestion; however it was easily confused in MS with combinations of other PTMs (e.g. acetylation, methylation). Moreover, propionylation is a PTM for histone H3 and this information was lost. Consequently, the EZ-link reagent was more useful for analysis of histones, as unambiguous assignment of PTMs and detection of native propionylation on bovine H3 became possible.
In this thesis, the structure of the C-terminal domain of presenilin-1, the catalytic component of the y-secretase complex, is investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The ysecretase complex has a definitive role in the pathogenic development of Alzheimer's disease, in that it mediates the cleavage of aprecursor to create the amyloid ß peptide. Aggregates of amyloid ß which form amyloid plaques are the most overt clinieal feature observed in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's patient. In addition, many of the mutations found in the aggressive early onset familial Alzheimer's disease have been linked to presenilin-1, highlighting its importance in disease progression and deeming it an important target for investigation. One of the greatest challenges for the structural investigation of the y-secretase components is their low expression yields in cell-based systems. We therefore applied continuous-exchange cell-free expression to obtain sufficient amounts of protein for our structural studies. An added benefit of the cell-free expression system is the freedom to incorporate any desired combination of stable-isotope labels directly into sampies. We were therefore able to develop a labeling scheme which targets the amino acid composition of transmembrane a-helices, allowing us to simplify an assignment procedure whieh tends to be cumbersome and diffieult for most a-helical transmembrane proteins. The y-secretase complex is a member of the intramembrane cleaving proteases which, as their name implies, cleave their transmembrane substrates within the bilayer. Single particle analysis of the y-secretase (1) as weil as crystal structures of rhomboid (2) and S2P (3) have revealed the presence of hydrophilie po res within the membrane where catalysis occurs. In light of evidence that certain elements of CTF reside in close proximity or even contribute to the formation of the hydrophilic pore, we chose to study the structure of CTF in mieelles, whieh may be better suited to accommodate CTF in isolation as compared with solid membranes in the absence of the other y-secretase components. The structure of CTF was solved to 1.7 A (backbone r.m.s.d) and revealed the presence of unusual features, including a partially membrane-spanning helix which situates the catalytic asparte at its N-terminus in what would be the center of the membrane where catalysis is proposed to occur, as weil as a severely kinked helix which is partially embedded beneath the surface of the membrane (P6). Interestingly, similar features have been observed in the crystal structure of the GlpG rhomboid. In addition, a soluble helix was found in the long N-terminal loop of CTF which until now has been described as unstructured. The first part of the thesis is designed to provide an introduction to Alzheimer's disease, the role of y-secretase and its presenilin-l catalytic component in disease progression, as weil as cell-free expression and liquid-state NMR techniques involved in the structural investigation of membrane proteins. In chapter 2, the reader is familiarized with the history, the clinical manifestation, and biochemical features of Alzheimer's disease. The chapter goes further to describe the role of the y-secretase complex and its individual components in disease progression and substrate processing. Chapter 3 focuses more specifically on presenilin-l in the context of the newly emerging class of intramembrane proteases. In chapter 4, attention is shifted to the cell-free expression system with special focus on the expression of membrane proteins, and chapter 5 explores the various liquid-state NMR techniques that were required for the characterization of CTF. The second part of the thesis is cumulative and contains original research, method, and review articles that were produced during the course of study. Chapter 6 explores the various techniques and innovations used to study membrane proteins using continuous exchange cell-free expression coupled with NMR spectroscopy. In chapter 7, a new technique, transmembrane segment targeted labeling, is described as a tool that facilitates the backbone assignment of transmembrane proteins which display severe overlap in NMR spectra. Chapter 8 presents the novel NMR structure of the C-terminal fragment of presenilin-l solved in SOS micelles.
The research presented in this thesis characterizes U2AF homology motifs (UHM) and their interactions with UHM ligand motifs (ULM) in the context of splicing regulation. UHM domains are a subgroup of RNA recognition motifs (RRM) originally discovered in the proteins U2AF65 and U2AF35. Whereas canonical RRMs are usually involved in binding of RNA, UHM domains bind tryptophan containing linear protein motifs (ULM) instead. In the first article, we analyze the complex network of interactions between splicing factors and RNA that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´ splice site of an intron. The protein U2AF65 binds a pyrimidine-rich element in introns and recruits U2snRNP by binding its protein component SF3b155. My contribution was to define the binding site of the protein U2AF65 to the intrinsically unstructured N-terminus of the scaffolding protein SF3b155. I could show that the UHM domain of U2AF65 recognizes a ULM in SF3b155, and that this binding site is not overlapping with the binding sites of other splicing factors, like p14, to SF3b155. As the U2AF65-UHM:SF3b155-ULM interaction is mutually exclusive with an interaction between U2AF65-UHM and a ULM in the splicing factor SF1, which was reported to initially recognize the branch point sequence, my results provide the molecular details on how SF3b155 replaces SF1 during spliceosomal reorganizations. In the second article, we show that overexpression of the UHM domain of the splicing factor SPF45 induces exon 6 skipping in the pre-mRNA of Fas (CD95/APO-1). I provide evidence for in vitro binding of SPF45-UHM to ULM sequences in the splicing factors U2AF65, SF1, and SF3b155. I crystallized free and SF3b155-bound SPF45 UHM and solved both structures by X-ray crystallography. The analysis of the complex interface and sequence differences in the ULMs allowed me to design mutations of SPF45-UHM, which selectively inhibit binding to distinct ULMs. After assessing the ULM binding properties in vitro, we could show that the activity of SPF45-UHM in influencing the splicing pattern of Fas relies on interactions with SF3b155 and/or SF1, but that an interaction with U2AF65 is dispensable. A mechanism for the activity of SPF45-UHM could thus be engaging in ULM interactions and thus interfering with the network of interactions that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´splice site, as described above. In the third article, we describe an unusual flexible homodimerization mode of the UHM in the splicing factor Puf60, which enables simultaneous interactions with ULM sequences on other splicing factors. I could show that the NMR relaxation properties of Puf60-UHM are inconsistent with a model of a rigid dimer, but rather indicate a dimerization via a flexible linker. I identified a flexible loop in the peptide backbone of Puf60-UHM, and showed that mutiation of acidic residues in this loop impairs the dimerization. To analyze the dimerization interface in further detail, I solved the structure of Puf60-UHM by X-ray crystallography. The acidic residues in the flexible loop of one UHM dimer subunit mediate the dimerization by contacting basic residues on the β-sheet surface of the other dimer subunit. Differences in the four dimer interfaces observed for the eight molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal support the model of an undescribed, flexible mode of dimerization, and thus complement the NMR relaxation data. Furthermore, I could show that the Puf60-UHM dimer and U2AF65-UHM contact different ULM sequences on the SF3b155 N-terminus in vitro, thus providing a possible explanation for the mutual cooperative activation of Puf60 and U2AF65 in splicing assays described in the literature. The fourth article is a review about recent research on the recognition of DNA double strand breaks (DSB) by covalent histone modifications. The p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is a DSB sensor and a checkpoint protein for mitosis. Recent crystallographic evidence indicates that 53BP1 recognizes DSB sites by binding histone H4 dimetylated at lysine 20 (H4-K20). We provide a comprehensive overview of the atomic resolution structures that revealed how proteins can specifically recognize histone tail modifications, especially methylated lysines, to read the information stored in what is called the histone code.
5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the two initial steps in the biosynthesis of leukotrienes, a group of inflammatory lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid. Here, the regulation of 5-LO mRNA expression by alternative splicing and nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) was investigated. In the present study, the identification of two truncated transcripts and four novel 5-LO splice variants containing premature termination codons (PTC) was reported. The characterization of one of the splice variants, 5-LOΔ3, revealed that it is a target for NMD since knockdown of the NMD factors UPF1, UPF2 and UPF3b in the human monocytic cell line Mono Mac 6 (MM6) altered the expression of 5-LOΔ3 mRNA up to 2-fold in a cell differentiation-dependent manner suggesting that cell differentiation alters the composition or function of the NMD complex. In contrast, the mature 5-LO mRNA transcript was not affected by UPF knockdown. Thus, the data suggest that the coupling of alternative splicing and NMD is involved in the regulation of 5-LO gene expression.
RT-PCR analysis of different cell types revealed the existence of a large number of 5-LO splice variants. The most interesting splice variants were observed in BL41-E95A cells, which give a raise to novel 5-LO protein isoforms. This leads to the hypothesis of a novel regulatory mechanism in which the dimerization of 5-LO with 5-LO isoforms might regulate the 5-LO activity.
The 5-LO protein expression was reduced on translational level in UPF1 knock down cells, suggesting that UPF1 has a positive influence on 5-LO translation. Therefore, a mass spectrometry based proteomics study was started to identify compartment specific protein expression changes upon UPF1 knockdown in differentiated and undifferentiated MM6 cells. The proteomics analysis demonstrated that the knockdown of UPF1 results in numerous protein changes in the microsomal fraction (~ 21%) but not in the soluble fraction (< 1%). Western blot data confirmed the trend of the proteomics analysis. This data suggest that UPF1 is a critical gene expression regulator in a compartment specific way. During differentiation by TGFβ and calcitriol the majority of UPF1 regulated proteins was adjusted to normal level. It appears that that not only the NMD mechanism alters its composition during differentiation. Also the gene expression regulation on translational level by UPF1 seems to be also cell differentiation dependent. An interesting group of UPF1 target genes represent the downregulated proteins. qRT-PCR analysis of randomly chosen genes revealed no effect on mRNA expression upon UPF1 knockdown, suggesting that UPF1 positively influences the translation of these genes. Computational sequence analysis identified a conserved C-rich sequence which might be a hnRNP E2-binding site. hnRNP E2 has been characterized as a translational repressor in myeloid cells. Western blot analysis revealed a differentiation independent up regulation of hnRNP E2 by UPF1 knockdown. Additionally, microRNA-328 (miR-328) has been described as an RNA decoy modulating hnRNP E2 regulation. Due to this, stem loop qRT-PCR showed an up regulation of miR-328 in TGFβ and calcitriol differentiated MM6 cells. Based on this data we suggest a model in which downregulation of UPF1 increases hnRNP E2 expression, leading to translation inhibition. During differentiation, miRNA-328 is upregulated thereby competing with hnRNP E2 leading to an efficient translation
Since combinatorial chemistry and high throughput screening have become a common technique in the drug discovery phase the number of compounds being considered has increased frequently. These structures are often characterized by high molecular weight, high lipophilicity and low solubility in aqueous and physiological media. Due to the generally poor bioavailability, new in vitro techniques were needed for screening of pharmacokinetic properties. An important parameter for these screening methods is the implementation at an early state of drug discovery phase, to find potential lead structures, before investment costs become significant. The established in vitro methods for the prediction of membrane interaction are not reliable especially for poorly soluble compounds. A new method that is fast and easy to use, requires only small amounts of NCE and which can provide more reliable predictions is needed. In this study, a new screening technique based on surface activity profiling for the prediction of oral drug absorption was evaluated with special emphasis on the predictability of biological membrane interaction of poorly soluble drug compounds. It was demonstrated that drug absorption through a bilayer membrane can be modeled by the orientation of compounds at the air/water interface. Thus amphilicity of a drug is generally related to both oral absorption and blood brain barrier penetration. In turn, amphiphilicity is influenced by the lipophilicity, size and charge distribution of a drug. Surface activity profiling was determined by analysis of surface pressure profiles using the Gibbs adsorption isotherm. The surface activity measurements were carried out using a multichannel tensiometer Delta 8, which was developed by Kibron to be utilized in conjugation high throughput screening in early drug discovery processes. For this study two test sets were analyzed, one for the prediction of gastrointestinal wall interaction and the second for the prediction of the penetration behavior at the blood brain barrier. Both test sets consist of drug compounds with a wide range of absorption properties and consist mainly of compounds with poor water solubility. Since the drugs characteristics varied, they were classified according to water solubility and surface activity and a sample preparation method for each group was established. For the prediction of oral drug absorption, three different methods were established to model the interaction of compound and gastrointestinal wall. For drug compounds with solubility above 1mmol/L the traditional shake-flask method enabled the determination of the amphiphilic properties of drug compounds in pure aqueous media. Compounds with solubility below 1mmol/L tend to not to exhibit any increase in surface activity. Thus surface tension measurements of compounds, which exhibited a limited surface activity due to poor aqueous solubility, were conducted from stock solutions prepared with various organic solvents. Mainly polar organic solvents were used. A mixture of DMSO and DMF resulted in the best combination of properties: the intensive solubility enhancing effect of DMF and the lower intrinsic surface activity of DMSO. The polar solvent ruptured the water clusters, so that highly lipophilic structures had a higher affinity to the solvent and higher concentrations could be obtained. For these compounds higher maximum surface pressure were generated than was possible in pure aqueous media. The surface pressure data were correlated with the fraction absorbed values in vivo. However it was found that poor water solubility is not the only limiting step to exhibiting any surface activity. Some compounds were showed no surface activity in either solvent system. Therefore a micelle vehicle method was established using short chain phospholipids to mimic the gastrointestinal wall. It could be concluded from the results, that non surface active drugs can interact with the phospholipids micelle vehicle in a way analogous to their interaction with the membrane bilayer. The relative critical micelle concentration was correlated with the fraction absorbed of this test set. A sample preparation schema based on the three types of drugs was established. This schema enabled us to predict the absorbance of slightly soluble and poorly soluble drugs with acceptable reliability for early compound screening. For the prediction of blood brain barrier penetration using surface activity profiling as analyzing method, a test set with very poorly soluble characteristics was chosen. The sample preparation method was based on a strictly aqueous approach using the ‘shake flask’ method. The surface tension measurements enabled correlation of the amphiphilic properties of the very poorly soluble drug compounds with BBB uptake. From the aqueous surface pressure profiles and the determination of physicochemical parameters, it was found that blood brain barrier is more likely when a drug provides a small cross-sectional area, As, at the interface. The cross-sectional area is the only parameter which is independent from the maximal concentration in aqueous media and it is particularly suitable for lower solubility compounds. In summary, it was shown that amphilicity is related to biological membrane interaction in the human body and that surface activity profiling with appropriate sample preparation can be used as a reliable screening tool for the prediction of oral drug absorption of poorly soluble drugs. Furthermore an in vitro screening method of blood-brain-barrier penetration was established.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors and possess a signature motif of seven transmembrane helices. The endothelin B (ETB) receptor is a member of rhodopsin like GPCR family. It plays an important role in vasodilation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of G-protein coupled receptors in general would significantly add to our understanding of their molecular mechanisms and would be useful in the search for new specific drugs. However, three-dimensional structural analysis will require milligram quantities of pure and homogeneous protein. This dissertation is a study of the production, biochemical characterization and preliminary structural studies of the human ETB G-protein coupled receptor. The present work aimed at elucidating the structure and mechanistic details of function of the receptor by using a combination of X-ray crystallographic and NMR methods for collecting structural data. To obtain homogenous and monodisperse receptor protein preparation for structural and functional studies, we implemented the baculovirus expression system for the production of ETB receptor for the present work. The two step affinity purification ensured capture of full-length receptor. Silver stained SDS-PAGE of the purified receptor-ligand complex indicated greater than 90% protein purity. Based on previous reports, we used the high affinity ligand (endothelin -1) binding to the receptor for co-crystallization of receptor-ligand complex by locking the receptor in the activated conformation. As a prerequisite for 3D crystallization trials, the stability of the detergent solubilized receptor-ligand complex was assessed with respect to pH, temperature and time. Receptor-ligand complex did not show any degradation and aggregation over 6 days at 4°C and 18°C. Interestingly, change of pH suggested that receptor-ligand complex is unstable at lower pH due to possible charge induced conformational changes. In our work, we introduced the idea of using fluorophore labeled ligand for simple visual recognition of the receptor-ligand complex during purification and crystallization. On the other hand, we alternatively used biotinylated endothelin-1 to produce an adequate amount of ligand bound receptor complex, thus ensuring homogeneity of the purified complex for use in structural studies. Thus far, preliminary crystals have been obtained for both the unlabelled ET-1 and fluorophore labeled ET-1 complexed with ETB receptor. Moreover, we performed the systematic investigation of the protein/peptide binding partner for the receptor-ligand complex with the chief aims of stabilizing structure and increasing the possibilities of 3D-crystal contacts. Thus subsequent to formation of receptor-ligand complex, the additional in vitro formation of a ternary arrestin-receptor-ligand complex was also attempted for use in structural studies. We successfully demonstrated that arrestin mutant (R169E) forms a tight complex with ETB receptor regardless of its phosphorylation state. A second approach to get insight into the ETB receptor ligand binding site relied on the use of spin isotope labeled ET-1 ligand peptide by employing solid state MAS NMR method. Preliminary data provided compelling evidence that the C-terminal region of the peptide is immobilized in an ordered environment and presumably bound to the receptor. This indicates that the approach is feasible, although there are difficulties in sample preparation for further spectral measurements and data collection which are currently being discussed in ongoing investigations. At this point of our research work, we initiated a collaborative effort to obtain high yields of pure, active receptor without post translational modifications, from an E. coli cell lysate based in vitro expression system. We successfully optimized the production of homogenous and monodisperse endothelin B receptor in mg amounts. Thus this could potentially provide an alternative source of high quality receptor production in large quantities for immediate crystallization trials. Thus we hope that the results from these investigations can be applied in a more general sense to the production and crystallization of other G protein-coupled receptors.
The generation of O2- by NADPH oxidaes was mainly attributed to immune cells that kill invading bacteria or cancer cells. But importantly, in the past several years, several homologs of the catalytic subunit gp91phox (Nox2) of the phagocytic NADPH oxidase have been identified in non-immune cells and tissues. Superoxide production derived from NADPH oxidaes has been shown to play a role not only in host defense but also in defined signaling cascades mediating growth and apoptosis. The aim of this work was to study the expression and the regulation of the”new” Nox isoforms in rat renal mesangial cells (MC). In particular the following results were achieved. 1) mRNA’s for both Nox1 and Nox4 were detected by RT-PCR. 2) Nox1 mRNA levels were increased upon exposure to basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fetal calf serum (FCS) in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Exposure of MC to bFGF and FCS increased also basal production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by MC. By contrast, Nox4 mRNA levels were not significantly affected by bFGF treatment, but were markedly down-regulated by PDGF and FCS. 3) To study the regulation of Nox1 on the protein level, an anti-Nox1 antibody was generated and characterized using affinity chromatography. Up-regulation of Nox1 expression by growth factors was confirmed also on the protein level. 4) Based on the already known cDNA sequence for Nox1, the transcriptional start site was determined by the “gene RACE” technique. 2547 bp of the genomic sequence of the 5´-flanking region of the Nox1 gene were cloned and sequenced using the „Genome-Walking“ method. To study the regulation of Nox1 transcription functional Nox1 promoter/luciferase fusions were be established. MC were transiently transfected with different promoter/luciferase constructs and stimulated with growth factors. By measuring luciferase activity it was determined that growth factors induced the Nox1 transcription and that the Nox1 core promoter is sufficient for the activation. 5) By measurement of superoxide radicals and analysis of Nox1 mRNA expression by quantitative RT-PCR (TaqMan) as well as protein level by Western blotting it could be shown that treatment of MC with NO donors inhibited the expression of Nox1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Moreover, using activators and inhibitors of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) it could be shown, that the activation of sGC mediates the effect of NO on Nox1 expression. However, NO had no inhibitory effect on Nox1 promoter activity. Experiments with the inhibitor of transcription, actinomycin D, suggest that NO-mediated regulation of Nox1 is triggered probably via post-transcriptional mechanisms. Nox4 is regulated on the mRNA levels in a similar manner as Nox1. 6) To analyze the sub-cellular localization of the Nox isoforms, coding sequences for Nox1 and Nox4 were fused together with green fluorescent protein into the pEGFP-N1 demonstrated that both isoforms are localized predominantly in the plasma membrane, but also in the perinuclear region and cytoplasm. However, the localization of Nox1 in the plasma membrane was more pronounced. 7) In addition to Nox1 and Nox4, mRNA of the newly identified NOXA1 that is a homolog of the p67phox subunit of NADPH oxidase was detected in MC by RT-PCR.
NK cells are part of the innate immune system, and are important players in the body’s first defence line against virus-infected and malignantly transformed cells. While T cells recognize neoplastic cells in an MHC-restricted fashion, NK cells do not require prior sensitization and education about the target. In leukemia and lymphoma patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation not only T cells but also NK cells have been found to mediate potent graft-versus-tumor effects. Hence, autologous or donor-derived NK cells hold great promise for cancer immunotherapy. Since the generation of highly purified NK cell products for clinical applications is labor-intensive and time consuming, established human NK cell lines such as NK-92 are also being considered for clinical protocols. NK-92 cells display phenotypic and functional characteristics similar to activated primary NK cells. While NK-92 cells are highly cytotoxic towards malignant cells of hematologic origin, they do not affect healthy human tissues. NK-92 cells can be expanded under GMP-compliant conditions, and can therefore be provided in sufficient numbers with defined phenotypic characteristics for clinical applications. Safety of NK-92 cells for adoptive immunotherapy was already shown in two phase I/II clinical trials...
Membrane proteins (MPs) constitute about 30% of the genome and are essential in many cellular processes. In particular structural characterisation of MPs is challenged by their hydrophobic nature resulting in expression difficulties and structural instability upon extraction from the membrane. Despite these challenges, progress in sample preparation and the techniques to solve MP structures has led to 281 unique MP structures as of January 2011. Through the combination of a cell-free expression system and selective labelling strategies, this thesis aimed to advance the structure determination of α-helical MPs by NMR spectroscopy and resulted in the structure determination of a seven-ransmembrane-helix protein. Results were obtained for the 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP) and proteorhodopsin (PR). The detergent-based cell-free expression mode proved most efficient for production of both targets, but optimisation of FLAP and PR followed different routes. The presence of a retinal cofactor in PR greatly facilitated the search for an appropriate hydrophobic environment. For structural studies, NMR spectra of FLAP indicated favourable properties of the lysolipid LPPG. In contrast, PR was stable and homogenous in the short-chain lipid diC7PC. As NMR spectra of α-helical MPs are generally characterised by broad lines and signal overlap, selective labelling strategies were essential in the assignment process of both targets. For the backbone assignment of FLAP the transmembrane segment-enhanced (TMS) labelling was developed, employing the six amino acids AFGILV. These residues cluster predominantly in transmembrane helices and form long stretches allowing a large extent of backbone assignment. Besides that, the combinatorial labelling enables identification of unique pairs in the sequence based on a mixture of 15N and 1-13C-labelled amino acids. To find the optimal labelling pattern for a given primary structure, the UPLABEL algorithm has been made available and successfully applied in the backbone assignment of PR. Both selective labelling approaches greatly benefitted from the use of a cell-free expression system to reduce isotope scrambling. Additionally, the de novo structure of PR was determined with an average backbone rmsd of 1.2 Å based on TALOS-derived backbone torsion angles, intrahelical hydrogen bond restraints and distance restraints from the NOE and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE). A major bottleneck in the NMR structure determination of MPs concerns the number of long-range distances which are often limited. In PR, side chain assignment was enabled by stereo-array isotope labelling as well as selective labelling which provided 33 long-range NOEs. These NOEs stabilised the symmetry of the seven helix bundle. With a total number of 1031, the majority of long-range distances were derived from PREs. The structure of PR reveals differences to its homologues such as the absence of an anti-parallel β-sheet between helices B and C and allows conclusions towards the mechanism of colour tuning.
Respiration is one of the key processes of energy transduction used by the cell. It consists of two components: electron transfer and ATP production. The electron transfer chain converts the energy released from several biochemical redox reactions into an electrochemical proton gradient across membranes. This stored energy is used as the driving force for the production of ATP by the ATP synthase. The mitochondrial electron transfer chain contains four major protein complexes called complexes I-IV, with counting starting at the lower side of the redox potentials. It has been discussed for a long time how these protein complexes are organized in the membranes. Do they diffuse freely in the membrane? Alternatively, do they form a supercomplex built up of several neighboring complexes? The evidence supporting the free diffusion mode is that both electron transfer intermediates (cytochrome c and quinone) behave as “pool”. However, respiratory supercomplexes have been detected in membranes from bacteria, fungi, yeast, plant and animal during the last decade, and sometimes the respiratory complexes are only stable inside a supercomplex. Therefore, the idea of supercomplex formation has become more popular. The argument that the supercomplex arises from solubilization and is a detergent artifact could be rejected because: 1) supercomplexes can be isolated from many organisms in an active form; 2) supercomplexes have been proven to stabilize the individual complexes in some cases; 3) supercomplexes can be very stable after chromatographic isolation in some cases....
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.
Sodium proton antiporters are ubiquitous membrane proteins found in the cytoplasmic and organelle membranes of cells of many different origins, including plants, animals and microorganisms. They are involved in cell energetics, and play primary roles in the homeostasis of intracellular pH, cellular Na+ content and cell volume. Adaptation to high salinity and/or extreme pH in plants and bacteria or in human heart muscles requires the action of such Na+/H+ antiporters. NhaA is the essential Na+/H+ antiporter for pH and Na+ homeostasis (at alkaline pH) in Escherichia coli and many other enterobacteria. NhaA is an electrogenic Na+/H+ antiporter that exchanges 2H+ for 1Na+ (or Li+). NhaA shares with many other prokaryotic and eukaryotic antiporters a very strong dependence on pH. In order to achieve three-dimensional structure of NhaA, the previously described NhaA protein preparation was modified: (i) the wild type bacterial strain (TA16) used for homologous over-expression of NhaA was replaced with a delta nhaA strain (RK20). As a result, the purity and homogeneity of the sample was significantly improved; (ii) the previously two-step purification procedure was shortened to a single step affinity chromatography purification; (iii) a wide-range screening of crystallisation conditions, more than 20,000, was performed; (iv) a Seleno-L-methionine (SeMet) NhaA derivative was produced in order to solve the phases during structure determination. In parallel, attempts of production and crystallisation of co-complexes composed of NhaA and antibody fragments have been made. Four different monoclonal antibodies were available against NhaA. Selected antibody fragments were produced and the stability of the complex analysed. Here, the crystal structure of the pH down-regulated secondary transporter NhaA of Escherichia coli is presented at 3.45 Å resolution. A negatively charged ion funnel opens to the cytoplasm and ends in the middle of the membrane at the putative ion-binding site. There, a unique assembly of two pairs of short helices connected by crossed, extended chains creates a balanced electrostatic environment. A possible mechanism is proposed: the binding of charged substrates causes electric imbalance inducing movements, which allow for a rapid alternating access mechanism. This ion exchange machinery is regulated by a conformational change elicited by a pH signal perceived at the cytoplasmic funnel entry. The structure represents a novel fold that provides two major insights: it reveals the structural basis for the mechanism of Na+/H+ exchange and its unique regulation by pH in NhaA and in many other similar antiporters. Furthermore, it is also important for the understanding of the architecture of membrane proteins in general. However, although many aspects of the ion-translocation mechanism and pH regulation are clarified by the NhaA structure, higher resolution structures with Li+ or Na+ bound are required for understanding the ligand binding and the translocation mechanism at the atomic level. The alkaline pH-induced conformation is essential to further understand the pH-control and proton access to the binding site.
In mitochondrial respiration, the soluble protein cytochrome c accepts an electron from the membrane bound cytochrome bc1. The interaction between cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c is highly transient in nature, enabling turnover numbers greater than 160 s-1. Yeast cytochrome bc1 has been successfully crystallised with bound cytochrome c with the help of an antibody fragment (Lange and Hunte 2002; Solmaz and Hunte 2008). In all crystal structures of the complex, the homodimeric cytochrome bc1 binds only one cytochrome c, with the binding site located on subunit cytochrome c1. Univalent cytochrome c binding is correlated with conformational changes of the Rieske protein head domain and subunit QCR6p. The interface of the complex is small. The haem moieties are centrally located in a mainly non-polar contact site that includes a cation–! interaction and is surrounded by complementary charged residues. The crystal structure is in agreement with the general architecture of the interfaces of transient redox complexes and also reveals several interesting features unique to the cytochrome bc1. On the basis of the crystal structures, an extensive thermodynamic and kinetic characterisation of the interaction was carried out in this work to challenge the static snapshot of the bound proteins in the crystal structure as the relevant physiological electron transfer. The thermodynamic parameters of the interaction between the redox partners were determined using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The association constant for cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c in oxidised state under physiological ionic strength of 120 mM at 25 °C, was determined to be 5 " 103 M-1 by direct ITC titration. So, the partners interact with an affinity of 200 #M. In spite of the low affinity the complex has a life time ($ = 1/koff) of 5 #second, sufficiently long to enable the theoretically calculated electron transfer rates of 1.0 " 106 to 2.6 " 107 s%1 with a lifetime ($ = 1/rate) of 1-0.04 μseconds and experimentally determined rate of 7.7 " 104 s%1 with a lifetime of 13 μseconds. The low affinity makes it difficult to ascertain the stoichiometry of binding. The enthalpy of the interaction is endothermic, which is consistent with the nature of an interface where hydrophobic interactions are dominant. The enthalpy and entropy is 3.6 kJmol-1 and 83 kJmol-1K-1, respectively. The importance of key interface residues was also investigated. The role of the interface residue G89 of cytochrome c which might have a role in the dissociation of the complex has been probed by site-directed mutagenesis. The interface contains a cation-! interaction between F230 of cytochrome bc1 and R19 of cytochrome c, which is thought to provide the specificity to the interaction between the otherwise promiscuous partners. To analyse the role of this interaction pair in electron transfer, F230L and F230W mutants were used to measure direct electron transfer rates by flash photolysis and steady state kinetics. The findings indicate that another ! system can work as functional substitution of F230, while deleting the ! system has a deleterious effect on the complex formation. The inability of F230L to achieve the transient and steady state turnover rates as wild type protein indicates a scenario where the variant achieves an altered bound state with inefficient electron transfer pathways and higher edge-to-edge distance. The role of supernumerary subunit QCR6p in complex formation was investigated by steady state kinetics measurements. Subunit QCR6p does not interact directly with cytochrome c but is positioned in such a way that it could electrostatically steer cytochrome c in a reactive ensemble. The highly acidic and disordered N-terminus of QCR6p could interact with a patch of conserved lysine residues on cytochrome c. The role of subunit QCR6p has been assessed using QCR6p deleted cytochrome bc1 and a lysine variant of cytochrome c. The results show that QCR6p not only affects the kinetics of the interaction but is also important for the stability of cytochrome bc1. The kinetic and thermodynamic data obtained during this study provide evidence for the functional importance of non-catalytic cytochrome bc1 subunit QCR6p, show that the entropy driven interaction is indeed of low affinity and highly transient in nature and indicate that the interface is well suited to ensure the high turnover of the electron transfer chain where cytochrome c interacts with multiple partners using overlapping interfaces. The suggested role of the cation-! interaction as a highly specific interaction has been validated.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) assembly and production is closely linked to lipid metabolism. Indeed, lipid droplets (LD) have been shown to serve as a platform for HCV assembly. To investigate the effect of HCV on the host cell proteome, 2D-gelelectrophoresis with subsequent MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of HCV replicating and the corresponding control cells were done. Based on this analysis, it was found out that HCV-replicating Huh7.5 cells revealed lower amounts of TIP47 (tail interacting protein of 47kD) compared to HCV-negative cells. TIP47, a cytoplasmic sorting factor, has been shown to be associated with lipid droplets. As it is known that HCV-replication and assembly takes place at the so called ”membranous web” that is composed of LDs and rearranged ER-derived membranes, it was tempting to investigate the role of TIP47 in HCV life-cycle. Western blot analysis did reveal that overexpression of TIP47 in HCV replicating Huh7.5 cells leads to decreased amounts of the HCV core protein while the levels of non-structural protein (NS)5A and intracellular HCVgenomes are increased. Moreover, in TIP47 overproducing cells higher amounts of infectious HCV particles are secreted. Vice versa, inhibition of TIP47 expression by siRNA results in a decreased level of intracellular NS5A, increased amounts of intracellular core and less infectious viral particles in the supernatant. In addition, complete silencing of TIP47 by lentiviral transduction abolishes HCV replication that can be restored by transfection of these cells with a TIP47 expression construct. It has been shown recently that apoE binds to NS5A and that this interaction plays an important role for the HCV life cycle (Benga et al., 2010). The C-terminal part of TIP47 harbours a 4 helix bundle motif and displays high homology to the N-terminus of apoE. Therefore, we investigated the interaction of NS5A and TIP47. Confocal double immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that a fraction of NS5A colocalizes with TIP47. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments and a yeast-two-hybrid screening confirmed the interaction between NS5A and TIP47 and deletion of the N-terminal-TIP47-PAT domain abolishes this interaction. From this we conclude that the TIP47-NS5A interaction is required for virus morphogenesis. Moreover, TIP47 can bind to Rab9 and this is relevant for targeting the viral particle out of the cell. In accordance to this, TIP47 was identified to be associated to the viral particle. Mutants of TIP47 that fail to bind Rab9 reveal lower amounts and a changed distribution of the HCV core protein. Furthermore, we could see that the core staining colocalizes with subcellular structures that were identified as autophagosomes using a p62-specific antibody which is a specific autophagosome-marker. Based on this, we hypothized that destruction of the Rab9 binding domain misdirects the viral particle towards the lysosomal compartment.
For the first time it could be shown that TIP47 interacts with NS5A and is associated to the viral particle, therefore plays a crucial role for the virus morphogenesis and secretion of the viral article.
Taken together, these results indicate that TIP47 is an essential cellular factor for the life cycle of HCV Abstract and might be used as target for antiviral treatment, e.g. by targeting the NS5A-TIP47 interaction, based on small molecules that mimic the NS5A-specific sequence that binds to TIP47 which might result in a competition of the TIP47/NS5A interaction.
By adopting a variety of shapes, proteins can perform a wide number of functions in the cell, from being structural elements or enabling communication with the environment to performing complex enzymatic reactions needed to sustain metabolism. The number of proteins in the cell is limited by the number of genes encoding them. However, several mechanisms exist to increase the overall number of protein functions. One of them are post-translational modifications, i.e. covalent attachment of various molecules onto proteins. Ubiquitin was the first protein to be found to modify other proteins, and, faithful to its evocative name, it is involved in nearly all the activities of a cell. Ubiquitylation of proteins was believed for a long time only to be responsible for proteasomal degradation of modified proteins. However, with the discovery of various types of ubiquitylation, such as mono-, multiple- or poly-ubiquitylation, new functions of this post-translational modification emerged. Mono-ubiquitylation has been implicated in endocytosis, chromatin remodelling and DNA repair, while poly-ubiquitylation influences the half-life of proteins or modulates signal transduction pathways. DNA damage repair and tolerance are example of pathways extensively regulated by ubiquitylation. PCNA, a protein involved in nearly all types of DNA transaction, can undergo both mono- and poly-ubiquitylation. These modifications are believed to change the spectrum of proteins that interact with PCNA. Monoubiquitylation of PCNA is induced by stalling of replication forks when replicative polymerases (pols) encounter an obstacle, such as DNA damage or tight DNA-protein complexes. It is believed that monoubiquitylation of PCNA stimulates the exchange between replicative pols to one of polymerases that can synthesize DNA across various lesions, a mechanism of damage tolerance known as translesion synthesis (TLS). Our work has helped to understand why monoubiqutylation of PCNA favours this polymerase switch. We have identified two novel domains with the ability to bind Ub non-covalently. These domains are present in all the members of Y polymerases performing TLS, and were named Ub-binding zinc finger (UBZ) (in polη and polκ) and Ub-binding motif (UBM) (in polι and Rev1). We have shown that these domains enable Y polymerases to preferentially gain access to PCNA upon stalling of replication, when the action of translesion polymerases is required. While the region of direct interaction between Y pols and PCNA had been known (BRCT domain in Rev1 and PIP box motif (PIP) in three others members), we propose that Ub-binding domains (UBDs) in translesion Y pols enhance the PIP- or BRCT-domain-mediated interaction between these polymerases and PCNA by binding to the Ub moiety attached onto PCNA. Following these initial studies, we have also discovered that Y polymerases themselves undergo monoubiquitylation and that their UBDs mediate this modification. This auto-ubiquitylation is believed to lead to an intramolecular interaction between UBD and Ub attached in cis onto the UBD-containing protein. We have mapped monoubiquitylation sites in polη in the C-terminal portion of the protein containing the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and the PIP box. Beside PIP, the NLS motif is also involved in direct interaction of polη with PCNA. Based on these findings, we propose that monoubiquitylation of either NLS or PIP masks them from potential interaction with PCNA. Lastly, using several functional assays, we have demonstrated the importance of all these three motifs in the C-terminus of polη (UBZ, NLS and PIP) for efficient TLS. We have also constructed a mimic of monoubiquitylated polη by genetically fusing polη with Ub. Interestingly, this chimera is deficient in TLS as compared to the wild-type protein. Altogether, these studies demonstrate that the C-terminus of polη constitutes a regulatory module involved in multiple-site interaction with monoubiquitylated PCNA, and that monoubiquitylation of this region inhibits the interaction between polη and PCNA. Our work has also revealed that the UBDs of Y pols as well as of other proteins implicated in DNA damage repair and tolerance, such as the Werner helicase-interacting protein 1 (Wrnip1), are required for their proper sub-nuclear localization. All these proteins localize to discrete focal structures inside the nucleus and mutation of their UBDs results in inability to accumulate in these foci. Interestingly, by exchanging UBDs between different proteins we have learned that each UBD seems to have a distinct functional role, surprisingly not limited to Ubbinding ability. In fact, swapping the UBZ of Wrnip1 with the UBM of polι abolished the localization of Wrnip1 to foci despite preserving the Ub-binding ability of the chimeric protein. In summary, this work provides an overview of how post-translation modification of proteins by Ub can regulate several DNA transactions. Firstly, key regulators (e.g. PCNA) can be differentially modified by Ub. Secondly, specialized UBDs (e.g. UBM, UBZ) embedded only in a subset of proteins act as modules able to recognize these modifications. Thirdly, by means of mediating auto-ubiquitylation, UBDs can modulate the behaviour of host proteins by allowing for either in cis or in trans Ub-UBD interactions.