570 Biowissenschaften; Biologie
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Human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles represent a promising tool for targeted drug delivery to tumor cells. The coupling of the antibody trastuzumab to nanoparticles uses the capability of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive cells to incorporate agents linked to HER2. In our present study, we developed targeted nanoparticles loaded with antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) against polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1). We evaluated the receptor-mediated uptake into HER2-positive and -negative breast cancer and murine cell lines. We performed quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analyses to monitor the impact on Plk1 expression in HER2-positive breast cancer cells. Antibody-conjugated nanoparticles showed a specific targeting to HER2-overexpressing cells with cellular uptake by receptor-mediated endocytosis and a release into HER2-positive BT-474 cells. We observed a significant reduction of Plk1 mRNA and protein expression and increased activation of Caspase 3/7. Thus, this is the first report about ASO-loaded HSA nanoparticles, where an impact on gene expression could be observed. The data provide the basis for the further development of carrier systems for Plk1-specific ASOs to reduce off-target effects evoked by systemically administered ASOs and to achieve a better penetration into primary and metastatic target cells. Treatment of tumors using trastuzumab-conjugated ASO-loaded HSA nanoparticles could be a promising approach to reach this goal.
The nucleus reuniens drives hippocampal goal‑directed trajectory sequences for route planning
(2023)
Goal-directed spatial navigation requires accurate estimates of one’s position and destination, as well as careful planning of a route between them to avoid known obstacles in the environment. Despite its general importance across species, the neural circuitry supporting the ability for route planning remains largely unclear. Previous studies described that place cells in the hippocampal CA1 encode the animal's next movement direction (Wood et al., 2000; Ito et al., 2015) and upcoming navigational routes (Pfeiffer & Foster, 2013). However, it has been shown that part of the CA1 activity representing the animal’s future behaviors is not necessarily generated in the hippocampus, but is derived from the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) via the nucleus reuniens of the thalamus (RE) (Ito et al., 2015). Notably, the importance of the PFC in navigation has been demonstrated in several studies, including the recent finding of a goal map in the orbitofrontal cortex (Basu et al., 2021). Therefore, I hypothesized that information flow from the PFC to CA1 via the RE plays a key role in route planning.
To assess the animals' route planning ability, I designed a new navigation task in which a rat has to navigate to a fixed target location from various starting positions in an arena. Furthermore, by adding an L-shaped wall in the maze and removing all light sources in the experimental room, this task forced the animals to plan a wall-avoiding route without relying on direct sensory perceptions. I confirmed that rats could learn this task successfully, memorizing the wall location and taking a smooth wall-avoidance route. To test the role of the RE, I inactivated RE neurons by expressing the inhibitory opsin SwiChR++, which resulted in a significant deficit in the animal’s route planning ability, taking a longer non-smooth path to the destination. By contrast, this manipulation did not affect navigation performance when a straight goal-directed route was available, suggesting a specific role of the RE in route planning. I further found that DREADDs-mediated inactivation of neurons in the bilateral hippocampi resulted in a similar deficit in route planning ability, implying cooperation between the RE and the hippocampus.
I finally examined the activity of hippocampal CA1 neurons with and without RE inactivation. While neurons in the hippocampus exhibited brief trajectory sequences corresponding to the animal’s subsequent goal-directed journey, I found that this goal-directed bias of trajectory events was significantly reduced by RE inactivation, likely associated with route-planning deficits in these animals.
Altogether, this dissertation demonstrates the role of the RE from both behavioral and neural coding perspectives, identifying a pivotal circuit element supporting the animal’s route-planning ability.
Fungi belonging to the Rhytismatales (Ascomycota) are parasites or endophytes of plants, some are saprophytes. Their fruiting bodies are localized in different organs of the host plants belonging to many different families of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Many species of Rhytismatales are known on species of Pinaceae, Ericaceae, and Poaceae. These fungi usually have ascomata that are more or less embedded in host tissue and open by longitudinal or radial splits. They have a more or less carbonized covering stroma, thin-walled, iodine negative asci, and ascospores usually covered by gelatinous sheaths.
In the present study, two lists of species of Rhytismatales in China are presented. One is based on literature and includes 103 species in 15 genera. The second one contains the names of the species in the present study, 57 species in 20 genera based on 90 specimens I collected in the Yunnan and Anhui province in China during July to August in 2001. 31 species in the second list are new species or new records for China, so we presently know 134 species in 22 genera of Rhytismatales for China. 28 new species of Rhytismatales are proposed, 21 species from the Yunnan province and seven from the Anhui province. Among them, three new species are proposed in three new genera, Nematococcomyces, New Genus 1, and New Genus 2, respectively. The 28 new species are Cerion sp., Coccomyces spp. 1-2, Colpoma spp. 1-2, Hypoderma spp. 1-6, Lirula sp., Lophodermella sp., Lophodermium spp. 1-5, Nematococcomyces rhododendri C.-L. Hou, M. Piepenbr. & Oberw., Neococcomyces sp., New Genus 1 sp., New Genus 2 sp., Rhytisma spp. 1-2, Soleella sp., Terriera spp. 1-2, and Therrya sp. The genus Davisomycella is proposed as a synonym of Lophodermella based on observations of the morphology, ecology, and the infected organ. The four genera Cerion, Naemacyclus, Terriera, and Therrya, and three species, Hypoderma rubi, Lophodermium uncinatum, and Naemacyclus pinastri, are reported for the first time for China. All the new taxa, the newly recorded ones, as well as six species which had not been illustrated in detail before, are carefully described and illustrated by line drawings in the present study.
The results show that species of Rhytismatales are highly diverse especially in the natural vegetation in high mountainous areas in China. Most species of Rhytismatales are conspicuously host specific. The diversity of Rhytismatales is closely related to that of the preferred hosts, which are members of Pinaceae, Ericaceae, and Cupressaceae. Based on the detailed morphological observations, the significance of different morphological characteristics for a natural classification of Rhytismatales is discussed. Genera are traditionally defined by character states of a few characteristics, namely the opening patterns of ascomata, the depth of ascomata in the host tissue, and asci and ascospore shape. Data from collections in the field, detailed morphological investigation, and molecular data show, however, that the ecology, the infected organ, the host relationship, and many other characteristics have to be combined to circumscribe natural groups.
The discussion of the systematic significance of morphological characteristics is complemented by molecular data. In the present study, partial nuclear large subunit rDNA sequences of 52 specimens representing 38 species are used to analyse phylogenetic relationships for members of Rhytismatales.
Most species of Rhytismatales are placed in a monophyletic group corresponding to the Rhytismatales in the Maximum Parsimony analysis. The delimitation of the Rhytismatales from the Helotiales is, however, difficult. Cyclaneusma minus should be transferred from the Rhytismatales to the Helotiales, and Cudonia circinans and Spathularia flavida from the Helotiales to the Rhytismatales. These tranfers have previously been proposed based on SSU rDNA analysis by other authors. New Genus 1 sp. has morphological characteristics typical for species of Rhytismatales. In the LSU rDNA analysis, however, it is more closely related to Helotiales rather than toRhytismatales. Therefore New Genus 1 sp. is placed in the Helotiales.
Tryblidiopsis pinastri is morphologically intermediate between members of Rhytismataceae and Cudoniaceae. LSU rDNA sequences in the present study show that T. pinastri is more closely related to species of Cudoniaceae. Therefore, this species is removed from the Rhytismataceae to the Cudoniaceae. The delimitation of further families could not be resolved in the present analysis.
Though many new morphological, ecological, and molecular phylogenetic findings are contributed for the first time, the systematic conclusions at generic, family, and order level can only be fragmentary in the present study. With more collections and more molecular data of the worldwide 450 known and many more unknown species of Rhytismatales at hand, a natural system combining morphological and molecular analysis can be elaborated.
Einleitung
APP und die Alzheimersche Krankheit
Das Alzheimer Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) ist ein Typ-1 Transmembranprotein mit einem Molekulargewicht von 110-135 kDa [Selkoe et al. 1988, Weidemann et al. 1989]. Es wird in allen bisher untersuchten Geweben exprimiert und weist in mehrzelligen Organismen einen hohen Konservierungsgrad auf [Robakis et al. 1987, Rosen et al. 1989]. APP ist unter anderem Vorläufer des β-A4-Peptides (Aβ), das in extrazellulären Aggregaten (Plaques) im Zentralen Nervensystem von Alzheimer-Patienten akkumuliert [Masters et al. 1985]. Die sogenannte „Amyloid-Hypothese der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung“ besagt, dass das Aβ-Peptid eine pathologische Kaskade initiiert, die zur Bildung von amyloiden Plaques, neuronaler Funktionsstörung und letztendlich Demenz führt [Hardy 1997, Selkoe 1999].
Prozessierung des APP
Der Hauptanteil des zellulären APP wird über den (nicht pathogenen) α-Sekretase-Weg prozessiert, wobei das sekretorische APP (α-sAPP) freigesetzt wird, das beinahe der gesamten N-terminalen Ektodomäne des APP entspricht. Die α-Sekretase spaltet APP innerhalb der Aβ-Domäne und verhindert somit die Bildung des pathogenen Aβ-Peptides. Kandidaten für die Katalyse dieser Spaltung sind Proteasen der ADAM-Familie [Buxbaum et al. 1998, Hooper et al. 1997, Koike et al. 1999, Lammich et al. 1999, Loechel et al. 1998].
Das Aβ-Peptid entsteht bei der sukzessiven proteolytischen Spaltung des APP durch die sogenannten β- und γ-Sekretasen. Bei der β-Sekretase handelt es sich um die Aspartat-Protease BACE (β-site APP cleaving enzyme) [Hussain et al. 1999, Sinha et al. 1999, Vassar et al. 1999, Yan et al. 1999]. Die Identität der γ-Sekretase ist noch nicht endgültig geklärt, jedoch spielen Presenilin-1 und -2 sowie Nicastrin eine Rolle bei der γ-Spaltung des APP [de Strooper et al. 1998, 1999, Struhl et al. 2000, Wolfe et al. 1999].
Unter physiologischen Bedingungen wird ca. 30% des APP durch α-Sekretasen prozessiert, ein viel geringerer Anteil dagegen durch die β-Sekretasen. Mehr als die Hälfte des zellulären APP bleibt ungespalten [Koo 2002].
Biologische Funktionen des APP
Die Funktionen des APP lassen sich unterscheiden nach Funktionen der kurzen zytoplasmatischen Domäne und der ca. 100 kDa großen Ektodomäne (α-sAPP). Die zytoplasmatische Domäne des APP stellt eine Plattform für die Bindung verschiedener Interaktionspartner dar. In Kooperation mit den Bindungspartnern spielt APP eine Rolle in unterschiedlichsten zellulären Prozessen wie vesikulärem Transport, Zellmotilität oder Genaktivierung [Review siehe Annaert und de Strooper 2002]. Die meisten Interaktionspartner der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP binden an die YENPTY-Sequenz nahe des C-Terminus des APP, die auch als Signal für die Endozytose des APP dient [Perez et al. 1999].
Die sekretorische Ektodomäne des APP hat eine wachstumsfördernde und neuroprotektive Wirkung. Um diese Wirkung auszuüben, bindet α-sAPP an einen bisher unbekannten Rezeptor, der auf der Zelloberfläche diverser Zelltypen wie Neuronen, Fibroblasten, Thyreozyten und Keratinozyten exprimiert wird [Review siehe Schmitz et al. 2002].
Polarer Transport des APP
In polaren MDCK Zellen wird das APP-Holoprotein fast ausschließlich zur basolateralen Zelloberfläche transportiert [Haass et al. 1994]. Es wurde gezeigt, dass dieser polare Transport des APP durch Tyrosin 653 in der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP beeinflusst wird. Mutation dieses Tyrosins zu Alanin führte zu partieller Fehlsortierung von ca. 50% des APP zur apikalen Plasmamembran. Die Sekretion von α-sAPP dagegen fand in MDCK-Zellen unabhängig von Tyrosin 653 basolateral statt [Haass et al. 1995].
Intrazellulärer Proteintransport durch Adaptor-Protein-Komplexe
Am intrazellulären Proteintransport sind Adaptor-Protein-Komplexe (APs) beteiligt, die bestimmte Sortierungssignale in der zytoplasmatischen Domäne von Frachtproteinen erkennen. Bis heute sind vier dieser tetrameren AP-Komplexe (AP-1 bis AP-4) bekannt, die zum Teil verschiedene Isoformen einzelner Untereinheiten aufweisen, z.B. AP-1A und AP-1B [Review: Boehm und Bonifacino 2001]. Jeder AP-Komplex spielt eine Rolle in einem bestimmten Schritt des intrazellulären Proteintransportes. Für AP-1A wird eine Funktion im anterograden und retrograden Transport zwischen Endosomen und TGN beschrieben [Review: Hinners und Tooze 2003]. AP-2 vermittelt Endozytose verschiedener Transmembranproteine von der Plasmamembran [Review: Kirchhausen 2002]. AP-3 spielt eine Rolle im Proteintransport zu Lysosomen und Lysosom-ähnlichen Organellen wie Melanosomen [Robinson und Bonifacino 2001]. AP-4 sowie AP1-B sortieren Proteine zur basolateralen Plasmamembran polarer Epithelzellen [Fölsch et al. 1999, Simmen etal. 2002].
Die Sortierungsmotive, die von Adaptor-Komplexen in der zytoplasmatischen Domäne der Fracht-Proteine gebunden werden, enthalten in den meisten Fällen entweder ein Tyrosin oder zwei Leucine. Das gesamte Motiv besteht aus jeweils vier bis zehn Aminosäuren [Review siehe Bonifacino und Traub 2003].
Ziele der Arbeit
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der polare Transport des APP in Epithelzellen untersucht. Ein Ziel war es, Faktoren zu finden, die den basolateralen Transport des APP in Abhängigkeit von Tyrosin 653 vermitteln. Des weiteren sollte der Transport von APP und sAPP in verschiedenen Epithelzelllinien analysiert werden. Um ein gutes Werkzeug zur Detektion von APP zu haben, wurden GFP-APP-Fusionsproteine hergestellt und charakterisiert.
Ergebnisse und Diskussion
GFP-APP-Fusionsproteine wurden hergestellt und in MDCK-, FRT- und LLC-PK1-Zellen stabil exprimiert. Die Charakterisierung der GFP-APP-Fusionsproteine durch Immunfluoreszenzanalysen zeigte, dass die chimeren Proteine im TGN sowie in peripheren Vesikeln lokalisiert sind und mit endogenem APP stark kolokalisieren. GFPAPP war somit gut geeignet, um den intrazellulären Transport des APP zu untersuchen.
Eine Analyse der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP im Bereich des Tyrosin 653 zeigte, dass dieses Tyrosin und die drei folgenden Aminosäuren (YTSI) ein Konsensus-Motiv für die Bindung von tetrameren Adaptor-Protein-Komplexen darstellen.
Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit waren AP-1 bis AP-3 bereits gut charakterisiert, wohingegen für AP-4 keine Funktion bekannt war. In Kollaboration mit Simmen et al. konnte gezeigt werden, dass AP-4 den basolateralen Transport einiger Proteine vermittelt [Simmen et al. 2002]. Immunfluoreszenzanalysen lokalisierten AP-4 im TGN und peripheren Vesikeln, die unterschiedlich von AP-1A/B markierten Strukturen waren. Da kaum Kolokalisation von AP-4 und AP-1A/B zu beobachten war, ist die Lokalisation von AP-4 und AP-1B, das auch eine Rolle im basolateralen Proteintransport spielt, in unterschiedlichen Subdomänen des TGN und unterschiedlichen vesikulären Strukturen anzunehmen.
Polarer Transport des APP durch Adaptor-Protein-Komplexe
Die mögliche Funktion von AP-1 und AP-4 im Transport von APP wurde zunächst mit Hilfe von in vitro-Bindungsstudien untersucht. Dazu wurde die zytoplasmatische Domäne des APP als GST-Fusionsprotein kloniert und exprimiert. Die Frachtproteinbindenden Untereinheiten von AP-1 und AP-4 wurden unter Verwendung von radioaktiv markiertem Methionin durch in vitro-Transkription und -Translation hergestellt. In Bindungsstudien interagierten AP-1A und AP-1B mit der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP, nicht aber AP-4. Diese Ergebnisse deuten an, dass AP-1A und AP-1B eine Rolle im intrazellulären Transport von APP spielen könnten. AP-4 dagegen scheint nicht an diesem Prozess beteiligt zu sein.
Durch Mutation des Tyrosin 653 in APP zu Alanin (Y653A) wurde die Interaktion zwischen AP-1B und APP stark verringert, was darauf hindeutet, dass dieses Tyrosin einen Teil des Bindungsmotivs für AP-1B darstellt. Übereinstimmend damit entspricht die genaue Aminosäureabfolge des Y653TSI-Motivs den Sotierungsmotiv-Präferenzen von AP-1B [Ohno et al. 1999]. Die Interaktion von AP-1A dagegen war mit WildtypAPP und der Tyrosin-Mutante vergleichbar und scheint somit auf einem anderen Interaktions-Motiv zu basieren. AP-1A und AP-1B erkennen somit unterschiedliche Sortierungsmotive in der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP und kooperieren möglicherweise im intrazellulären Transport des APP. Diese Ergebnisse sind der erste Bericht über eine Interaktion von Adaptor-Protein-Komplexen mit der zytoplasmatischen Domäne des APP.
Die Rolle von AP-1B im basolateralen Transport von APP wurde genauer untersucht mit Hilfe der LLC-PK1 Zelllinie, die kein AP-1B exprimiert [Ohno et al. 1999]. In LLCPK1-Zellen werden verschiedene Proteine unpolar zur apikalen und basolateralen Membran verteilt, die in MDCK-Zellen durch Interaktion mit AP-1B basolateral transportiert werden [Fölsch et al. 1999, Sugimoto et al. 2002]. Um den Transport von APP in polaren LLC-PK1-Zellen zu untersuchen, wurde Plasmamembran-ständiges GFP-APP durch zwei unabhängige Methoden nachgewiesen: die apikale oder basolaterale Oberfläche der Zellen wurde selektiv entweder biotinyliert oder mit GFPAntikörpern markiert. Beide Methoden zeigten, dass GFP-APP in LLC-PK1-Zellen sowohl an der apikalen als auch an der basolateralen Zelloberfläche lokalisiert ist. Somit wird auch APP in diesen Zellen im Vergleich zu MDCK-Zellen anders sortiert. Dieses Ergebnis festigt die Hypothese einer Funktion von AP-1B im Transport von APP, die aufgrund der Daten der in vitro-Bindungsstudien aufgestellt wurde.
Polare Sekretion des sAPP ist unabhängig vom Transport des Holoproteins
Neben dem Transport des APP-Holoproteins war auch die polare Sekretion des sAPP Thema dieser Arbeit. Es war gezeigt worden, dass basolaterale Sekretion des sAPP in MDCK-Zellen unabhängig vom Transport des APP-Holoproteins ist [Haass et al. 1995]. Dieses Ergebnis konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit bestätigt und auf andere Zelllinien erweitert werden. Um die korrekte Sekretion von GFP-sAPP nachzuweisen, wurde die GFP-sAPP-Sekretion zunächst in polaren MDCK-Zellen untersucht, die stabil GFP-APP exprimierten. Da GFP am N-Terminus des APP angefügt ist, trägt auch das sezernierte APP die GFP-Markierung. GFP-sAPP konnte mittels Immunpräzipitation mit GFP-spezifischen Antikörpern lediglich im basolateralen Medium nachgewiesen werden. Somit sezernieren MDCK-Zellen GFP-sAPP in gleicher Polarität wie von Haass et al. für endogenes sAPP gezeigt wurde [Haass et al. 1995].
Experimente in GFP-APP exprimierenden LLC-PK1- und FRT-Zellen zeigten, dass auch hier die polare Sekretion des GFP-sAPP und der Transport des APPHoloproteins zwei unabhängige Prozesse sind. Polare LLC-PK1-Zellen transportierten GFP-APP zur apikalen und basolateralen Plasmamembran (siehe oben). GFP-sAPP-Sekretion aus polaren LLC-PK1-Zellen dagegen fand ausschließlich basolateral statt. In FRT-Zellen wurde GFP-sAPP im Gegensatz zu MDCK- und LLCPK1-Zellen apikal sezerniert. Kolokalisation des GFP-APP mit Transferrin-Rezeptor in FRT-Zellen deutete dagegen an, dass das Holoprotein wie in MDCK-Zellen basolateral transportiert wird. Dies ist auch zu erwarten, da FRT-Zellen AP-1B exprimieren und es auch in dieser Zelllinie basolateralen Transport vermittelt [A. Gonzalez, persönlich, ASCB 2003]. Nach diesen Ergebnissen zu urteilen, finden auch in FRT und LLC-PK1-Zellen APP-Transport und sAPP-Sekretion unabhängig voneinander statt.
Basolaterale sAPP-Sekretion ist unabhängig von der Ektodomäne
In MDCK-Zellen wurde zusätzlich die Sekretion eines GFP-APP untersucht, in dem der Großteil der Ektodomäne deletiert und durch GFP ersetzt wurde, die SekretaseSchnittstellen jedoch noch vorhanden waren. Durch Immunfluoreszenzanalyse wurde zunächst nachgewiesen, dass die subzelluläre Lokalisation dieser Deletionsmutante der des endogenen APP entspricht. Die Sekretion dieses stark verkürzten sAPP erfolgte wie die des Wildtyps basolateral. Dieses Ergebnis deutet an, dass die Determinante für die basolaterale Sekretion des sAPP nicht innerhalb der Ektodomäne liegt, wie in einigen älteren Publikationen angenommen wird [Haass et al. 1995, de Strooper et al. 1995]. Neuere Ergebnisse dagegen führen die polare Sekretion des sAPP auf die basolaterale Lokalisation der α-Sekretase zurück [Capell et al. 2002], was die basolaterale Sekretion der Deletionsmutante erklären könnte.
sAPP-Bindung an polaren Zellen
Durch Interaktion mit einem bisher unbekannten Rezeptorprotein erfüllt sAPP für verschiedene Zelltypen die Funktion eines Wachstumsfaktors [Saitoh et al., 1989, Pietrzik et al., 1998, Hoffmann et al., 2000]. Da viele Wachstumsfaktor-Rezeptoren selektiv entweder an der apikalen oder basolateralen Plasmamembran von Epithelzellen lokalisiert sind, wurden Bindungsstudien mit rekombinant exprimiertem sAPP (sAPPrec) an polaren FRT und MDCK-Zellen durchgeführt. Analyse der Bindung mit einem sAPPrec-spezifischen Antikörper zeigte, dass sAPP ausschließlich an der apikalen Plasmamembran beider Zelllinien bindet. Da die Sekretion des sAPP in FRT-Zellen ebenso apikal erfolgt, ist in dieser Zelllinie eine autokrine Regulation durch sAPP vorstellbar, was auch durch vorherige Ergebnisse angedeutet wurde [Pietrzik et al. 1998]. Für MDCK-Zellen, die sAPP basolateral sezernieren und apikal binden, muss ein anderer Regulationsmechanismus vorliegen. Es könnte sich um parakrine Regulation handeln, was jedoch noch bestätigt werden muss.
Fazit: In dieser Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass tetramere Adaptor-ProteinKomplexe eine Rolle im intrazellulären Transport von APP spielen. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde die Funktion des AP-4-Komplexes in einer Kollaboration analysiert. Es wurde gezeigt, dass AP-1A und AP-1B eine Rolle im Transport von APP spielen. Eine Funktion von AP-4 im Transport von APP ist nach den vorliegenden Ergebnissen unwahrscheinlich. Untersuchungen zur APP-Sortierung in verschiedenen Epithelzelllinien zeigten, dass die Hypothese der Unabhängigkeit von APP-Transport und sAPP-Sekretion als genereller Mechanismus angesehen werden kann. Durch Analyse der sAPP-Bindung an polaren FRT- und MDCK-Zellen wurde erstmals die polare Lokalisation des putativen sAPP-Rezeptors untersucht, was einen ersten Einblick in den Mechanismus der sAPP-vermittelten Regulation in polaren Zellen ermöglichte.
Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes oxidize, peroxidize and/or reduce cholesterol, vitamins, steroids, xenobiotics and numerous pharmacological substances in an oxygen- and NADPHdependent manner. Since many CYP isozymes are also capable of metabolizing arachidonic acid to biologically active products, CYP enzymes are often described as the third pathway of arachidonic acid metabolism i.e., in addition to cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. CYP enzymes are predominantly expressed in the liver while others, such as members of the CYP 2J, CYP 2C and CYP 4A subfamilies, can be detected in extrahepatic tissues, particularly in the cardiovascular system. Recent data suggest that a CYP 2C enzyme(s) expressed in coronary artery endothelial cells generate epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (5,6-; 8,9-; 11,12- and 14,15-EET) which contribute to the acute control of vascular tone and the longterm regulation of vascular homeostasis.
The expression of CYP 2C in coronary artery endothelial cells is regulated by a number of stimuli, such as cyclic stretch and fluid shear stress as well as by the corticosteroid cortisol and a number of CYP substrates (nifedipine, cerivastatin and -naphthoflavone). However, the signalling pathways and the transcription factors involved in regulating the expression of the gene are unknown.
Since most of the CYP 2C enzymes are transcriptionally regulated, we were interested in identifying the CYP 2C isoform(s) expressed in porcine coronary artery endothelial cells (PCAEC) as well as determining its/their promoter sequence(s). The overall goal was to study the involvement of different transcription factor binding elements in the regulation of the CYP 2C gene(s). Porcine coronary arteries were used given the possibility of analysing the results obtained at the cellular level with alterations in vascular function. Comparison of the porcine CYP 2C and the human CYP 2C8 and 2C9 promoters was also a major goal of this study.
To identify the relevant porcine CYP 2C isoform nested RT-PCR was performed using total RNA from porcine coronary artery endothelial cells. Comparison of the sequence of the product of this reaction with the NCBI database suggested that the CYP 2C expressed in PCAEC was approximately 85% homologous with the human CYP 2C9 enzyme. To obtain the full length CYP 2C isoform 5´ rapid amplification of cDNA end (5´ RACE) was performed using a downstream reverse gene specific primer which is conserved in all of the porcine CYP 2C isoforms. The intention behind using such a primer was to amplify all the possible CYP cDNAs expressed in PCAEC. With the 5´ RACE technology it was possible not only to identify the exact isoform (CYP 2C34) expressed in PCAEC, but it was also possible to amplify 550 bp of the 5´ upstream region. This result was authenticated by comparing the protein/nucleotide sequence with other human CYP 2C genes such as CYP 2C8 and CYP 2C9 as well as different porcine CYP 2C genes (CYP 2C34, CYP 2C49). Multiple protein/nucleotide sequence alignment revealed approximately 85-90% sequence identity. An exon1-2 specific radio-labelled probe of the CYP 2C34 gene was then used to screen a porcine genomic library for positive genomic clones containing the promoter region of the CYP 2C34 gene.
For the isolation of 5´ flanking region of CYP 2C34 gene a PCR-based directional genome walking strategy was used in which the positive porcine genomic BAC clones were taken as a DNA template. Four arbitrarily designed universal walking primers and a gene-specific primer derived from the CYP 2C34 gene sequence were employed and led to the identification and isolation of 1.4 kb of the 5´ flanking region.
The 1.4 kb 5´ flanking region of CYP 2C34 gene contains multiple transcription factor binding sites including glucocorticoid-responsive element (GRE), hypoxia-responsive element (HRE), CAAT-enhancer binding protein (C/EBP), stress responsive element (STRE) consensus sequences. CYP 2C34 promoter constructs were generated and reporter gene activity (luciferase) activity was compared with that of a promoterless vector (pGL3-Basic) at first in HEK cells and then in PCAEC. After using cortisol as a positive control to demonstrate that the promoter constructs generated were functional we determined the effects of physiologically relevant stimuli i.e., hypoxia and cyclic stretch. Additional experiments with zinc sulphate were performed in a preliminary analysis of the role of Zn2+ inducible transcription factors and might be cooperative heterodimerization formation with these transcription factor with C/EBP in the regulation of CYP 2C34 expression. With all these stimuli, reporter gene activity of CYP 2C34 promoter was significantly (3-8 fold) increased over values obtained in unstimulated cells.
Analysis of the regions that are essential for the induction of promoter activity in response to the different stimuli of interest have to be performed in combination with gel shift assays, siRNA experiments as well as site-directed mutagenesis experiments. Comparison of the regulation of the CYP 2C34 gene and correlation with changes in vascular function (in isolated porcine coronary arteries) should deliver information relevant to the regulation of the CYP 2C enzyme expressed in human coronary artery endothelial cells. The recent demonstration of a clinically relevant role for CYP 2C9 in coronary heart disease underlines the importance of such a study.
Determination of the structure of complex I of Yarrowia lipolytica by single particle analysis
(2004)
Komplex I enthält ein Flavinmononukleotid sowie mindestens acht Eisen- Schwefel Zentren als redoxaktive Cofaktoren. Da ein wesentlicher Teil des mitochondrialen Genoms für Untereinheiten von Komplex I codiert, betrifft eine Vielzahl von mitochondrialen Erkrankungen diesen Enzymkomplex.
Komplex I wurde bisher aus Mitochondrien, Chloroplasten und Bakterien isoliert. Die Minimalform von Komplex I wird in Bakterien gefunden, wo er aus 14 (bzw 13 im Falle einer Genfusion) Untereinheiten besteht und eine Masse von etwa 550 kDa aufweist. Generell werden sieben hydrophile und sieben hydrophobe Untereinheiten mit über 50 vorhergesagten Transmembranhelices gefunden. Im Komplex I aus Eukaryoten wurde eine grössere Anzahl zusätzlicher, akzessorischer Untereinheiten nachgewiesen. Hier werden die sieben hydrophoben Untereinheiten vom mitochondrialen Genom codiert, während alle anderen Untereinheiten kerncodiert sind und in das Mitochondrium importiert werden müssen.
Die obligat aerobe Hefe Yarrowia lipolytica wurde als Modellsystem zur Untersuchung von eukaryotischem Komplex I etabliert. Die bisher am besten untersuchte Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae enthält keinen Komplex I. Hier wird die Oxidation von NADH durch eine andere Klasse von sogenannten alternativen NADH Dehydrogenasen durchgeführt. Auch Y. lipolytica enthält ein solches alternatives Enzym, das allerdings mit seiner Substratbindungsstelle zur Aussenseite der inneren Mitochondrienmembran orientiert ist. Durch molekularbiologische Manipulation konnte eine interne Version dieses Enzymes exprimiert werden, wodurch es möglich ist, letale Defekte in Komplex I Deletionsmutanten zu kompensieren. Mittlerweile wurden alle Voraussetzungen geschaffen, um kerncodierte Untereinheiten von Komplex I aus Y. lipolytica gezielt genetisch zu verändern. Die Proteinreinigung wird durch die Verwendung einer auf einem His-tag basierenden Affinitätsreinigung erheblich erleichtert...
The transcriptional regulator RcsB controls the expression of a minimum of 20 different genes having diverse functionalities and biosynthetic operons in the family of Enterobacteriaceae. While in the heterodimeric complex with the co activator RcsA, the RcsAB box consensus is recognized, DNA binding sites for RcsB without RcsA have also been identified. The conformation of RcsB might therefore be modulated upon interaction with various co activators, resulting in recognition of different DNA targets. In this study the interaction of RcsB with some of these DNA targets have been analysed by a diverse array of techniques including gel shift assay and SPR. The solution structure of the C-terminal DNA-binding domain of RcsB from Erwinia amylovora spanning amino acid residues 129-215 has been solved in this study by heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. The C-terminal domain is composed of four α-helices where the two central helices of the H-T-H motif are similar to the structures of the regulatory proteins GerE, NarL and TraR. The DNA-binding activity of the C-terminal domain alone is established for the first time in this study and was specified by fluorescence spectroscopy, SPR and NMR titration experiments. The molecular interaction between the individual RcsB domains was analysed by cross-linking experiments and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy and the amino acid residues of the C-terminal domain involved in this interaction were identified precisely. Another important part of this project was the cell-free production of different Trp analogue labelled RcsB protein. RcsB protein was produced in quite a good yield with different Trp analogue having spectrally enhanced properties. The isolated RcsB alloproteins proved to be ideal for protein interaction studies by fluorescence spectroscopy and the very first evidence of an oligomerization of RcsB due to molecular association has been put forth from these studies. The phosphorylated state of the RcsB protein was mimicked by a beryllofluoride complex in order to study its role in transcriptional regulation. It was found that RcsB alone could bind to DNA targets upon this modification by the beryllofluoride complex. Thus the phosphorylation of the protein that involves the Asp 56 residue induces a structural change of the protein followed probably by a domain movement also, so that the C-terminal domain having the H-T-H DNA binding motif that was previously eclipsed by the N-terminal domain is relieved of this constraint.
Highlights
• Cryo-EM structure of a yeast F1Fo-ATP synthase dimer
• Inhibitor-free X-ray structure of the F1 head and rotor complex
• Mechanism of ATP generation by rotary catalysis
• Structural basis of cristae formation in the inner mitochondrial membrane
Summary
We determined the structure of a complete, dimeric F1Fo-ATP synthase from yeast Yarrowia lipolytica mitochondria by a combination of cryo-EM and X-ray crystallography. The final structure resolves 58 of the 60 dimer subunits. Horizontal helices of subunit a in Fo wrap around the c-ring rotor, and a total of six vertical helices assigned to subunits a, b, f, i, and 8 span the membrane. Subunit 8 (A6L in human) is an evolutionary derivative of the bacterial b subunit. On the lumenal membrane surface, subunit f establishes direct contact between the two monomers. Comparison with a cryo-EM map of the F1Fo monomer identifies subunits e and g at the lateral dimer interface. They do not form dimer contacts but enable dimer formation by inducing.
Understanding the complexity of transcriptional regulation is a major goal of computational biology. Because experimental linkage of regulatory sites to genes is challenging, computational methods considering epigenomics data have been proposed to create tissue-specific regulatory maps. However, we showed that these approaches are not well suited to account for the variations of the regulatory landscape between cell-types. To overcome these drawbacks, we developed a new method called STITCHIT, that identifies and links putative regulatory sites to genes. Within STITCHIT, we consider the chromatin accessibility signal of all samples jointly to identify regions exhibiting a signal variation related to the expression of a distinct gene. STITCHIT outperforms previous approaches in various validation experiments and was used with a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen to prioritize novel doxorubicin-resistance genes and their associated non-coding regulatory regions. We believe that our work paves the way for a more refined understanding of transcriptional regulation at the gene-level.
In fungi, the mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (complexes I–IV) are responsible for oxidative phosphorylation, as in higher eukaryotes. Cryo-EM was used to identify a 200 kDa membrane protein from Neurospora crassa in lipid nanodiscs as cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) and its structure was determined at 5.5 Å resolution. The map closely resembles the cryo-EM structure of complex IV from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its ten subunits are conserved in S. cerevisiae and Bos taurus, but other transmembrane subunits are missing. The different structure of the Cox5a subunit is typical for fungal complex IV and may affect the interaction with complex III in a respiratory supercomplex. Additional density was found between the matrix domains of the Cox4 and Cox5a subunits that appears to be specific to N. crassa.