Doctoral Thesis
Refine
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (2) (remove)
Language
- English (2)
Has Fulltext
- yes (2)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (2)
Keywords
- Indonesia (2) (remove)
Institute
Forty two samples of the Late Eocene Kiliran oil shale, Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia were collected from a 102 m long drill core. Palynofacies and geochemical analyses have been carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions and paleoecology during deposition of the oil shale. Amorphous organic matter (AOM) is very abundant (>76%). B. braunii palynomorph is present (3-16%) as the only autochtonous structured organic matter and generally more abundant in middle part of the profile. The stable carbon isotopic composition of organic matter (δ13C) varies from -27.0 to -30.5‰ and is generally more depleted in middle part of the profile. The ratio of total organic carbon to sulfur (TOC/S), used as salinity indicator, ranges from 2.5 to 15.8 and shows variations along the profile. Relatively less saline environments are observed in the middle part profile. Fungal remains are generally present only in middle part of the profile with distinct peak of abundances. The presence of fungal remains is regarded as an indication for a relatively warmer climate during deposition of middle part of the profile. The warmer climate is thought to influence the establishment of a thermocline, limiting the supply of recycled nutrients to the epilimnion. Consequently, the primary productivity in the Kiliran lake decreased during deposition of the middle part of the profile as indicated by the relatively depleted δ13C and the blooming of B. braunii. The chemocline was also shoaling during deposition of the middle part of the profile according to the higher abundance of isorenieratene derivatives of green sulfur bacteria origin. The warmer climate affected also to increase of water supply and thus less saline environments.
Tectonic subsidence is also thought to be a significant factor for the development of the Kiliran lake. The Zr/Rb ratio, an indicator for grain size, ranges from 0.4 to 1.3 and generally increases upwards along the profile. Three sudden decreases of the ratio are observed, indicating rapid change to finer grain size. These decreases are interpreted to indicate rapid deepening events of the lake due to mainly periodic subsidence. During deposition of lower part of the profile, the subsidence rates might have been relatively higher than sediment and water supply rates, resulting in a higher autochtonous fraction in the oil shale. During deposition of middle part of the profile, the sediment and water supply rates were relatively higher promoting distinct progradational sedimentation. Subsequently, the lake became more shallow and smaller during deposition of the upper part of the profile, leading to a relatively higher terrigenous input to the oil shale.
Norneohop-13(18)-ene and neohop-13(18)-ene derived from methanotrophic bacteria are the dominant hopanoid hydrocarbons. The sum of their concentrations varies from 40.6 to 360.0 μg/g TOC. The δ13C of these compounds are extremely depleted (-45.2 to -50.2‰). The occurrence of abundant bacteria including methanotrophic bacteria was responsible for the recycling of carbon below the chemocline of the lake. The effect of the recycling of carbon is observed by the presence of a concomitant depletion (about 7-9‰) in 13C of some specific biomarkers derived from organisms dwelling in the whole phototrophic zone.
4-Methylsterane and 4-methyldiasterene homologues occur in the oil shale as the predominant biomarkers. The sum of the concentrations of all homologues are about 40.3-1,009.2 μg/g TOC with generally higher values in uppermost and lower parts of the profile. Ca accounts as the predominant element in the oil shale, ranging from 5.0 to 16.7%. This element shows generally parallel variation with the 4-methylsterane homologues along the profile. This suggests that the 4-methylsteranes were derived from biological sources favoring more alkaline and more trophic environments. On the other hand, these compounds were less abundant in middle part of the profile which is consistent with less alkaline and less trophic environments promoting B. braunii to bloom.
The 4-methylsterane homologues are considered to originate from Dinoflagellates. Alternation between Dinoflagellates and B. braunii in Paleogene lake systems due to water chemistry changes are known from previous studies. Moreover, freshwater Dinoflagellates have been frequently reported to occur in the basin depocenters. In the present case, distinct alternation between B. braunii abundances and concentrations of 4-methylsterane homologues along the studied oil shale profile suggest that the 4-methylsterane homologues were derived from freshwater Dinoflagellates although dinosterane is not present in the sediment extracts. Water alkalinity and trophic level changes were most likely responsible for the alternation of Dinoflagellates and B. braunii blooming.
The present study focuses on specific aspects in the organization of teaching religion in Indonesia. It analyses the position of religion within the Indonesian Basic Law, consequential legislation, and educational policies. How does this framework translate into national and regional policies pertaining to the emergence, institutionalization, and organization of the Hindu class and the Hindu education system in Bali from 1945 to 2008?
Muslim majority Indonesia constitutes an interesting laboratory for doing fundamental research on religious plurality and transformations of religion. The model of organizing the religion class in Indonesia is rooted in a specific historical, socio-cultural, political, and legal context, which is fundamentally different to European models of religious education. In addition, in contrast to classical Islam and modern Islamic states, Indonesia recognizes Asian religions as equal in status with the religions of the book. Besides Islam and Christianity, Hindu Dharma and Buddhism were recognized as state funded religions in 1965. This recognition had important consequences for the Indonesian model of organizing five confessional religion classes and faith-based education systems.
The Balinese are a rare case of a religious and ethnic minority being simultaneously an ethnic and religious majority. Therefore, the Balinese provide an outstanding case to analyze how Indonesia’s religious and educational policies do deal with that particular ethnic and religious minority. In addition, how do the Balinese themselves use the constitutional and legal framework to establish the Hindu religion class in public schools and a private Hindu education system from the level of pre-school to higher education?
A qualitative examination was conducted basing on a combination of theoretical and empirical investigations. The province of Bali and three educational institutions were chosen, because the Balinese were the reformers of Indonesian Hindu Dharma and the inventors of the Hindu education system. As the study focuses on constitutional and legal contexts of the Hindu class and the Hindu education system, teachers’ professional education, and composition of curricula and textbooks, a qualitative approach was applied combining ethnographic fieldwork and case study research. In consequence, the subject positions the study in the academic disciplines of Religious Studies and Area Studies. Data were collected through bibliographical surveys and fieldwork.
The amended 1945 Basic Law and consequential legislation give the same right to state sanctioned religions. The state is based on “One Supreme Lordship” prescribing national monotheism or monism. Indonesia’s spirited statehood is based on a religious, but not confessional interpretation. In addition, the strategy to manage religious plurality is authoritarian, as positive freedom of religion is limited to six state-funded religions, whereas negative religious freedom is not provided for. Despite the equal status of the six state funded religions, discriminative practices prevail with regard to funding those Asian religions. Notwithstanding, the Muslim majority Pancasila state can serve a model function for countries with illiberal politics in the Muslim world.
The first objective of strategic and educational policies is to mould a citizen who has faith in God, follows the commands of God, and has morals. The dimension of spiritual intelligence in education is a particular Indonesian dimension of education, which Indonesian educational planners added to the UNESCO standards of student-centered learning throughout life. Indonesia organizes the religion class and faith-based education systems in a confessional but pluralistic style. The citizens are required to attend the religious class in the religion they adhere to instructed by a teacher of the same belief from elementary to higher education. In addition, the religious mark is a compulsory item in the school report, and whether a pupil/student stays back or is promoted to the next level depends, amongst other factors, on how the religion teacher grades the student.
Unlike the Muslim or Christian based education systems, the Hindu education system is still marginal and minuscule. Its funding is discriminative. Funding and expansion are linked to national policies, and the personal networks of Hindu agents are given the mandate to organize the Hindu administration and education system.