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Seit gezeigt wurde, dass die genetischen Informationen in Form von DNA gespeichert wird, ist das Geheimnis der DNA-Struktur gelöst, der Mechanismus der Gen-Expression und die Rolle der RNA verstanden worden. Das Interesse für die Chemie und die Biologie der Nukleinsäuren ist somit kontinuierlich gewachsen. Besonders interessant ist die RNA, die eine Rolle als ein Vermittler der genetischen Informationen (mRNA) spielt, aber auch als Bote von Aminosäuren (tRNA). Sie ist im Ribosom (rRNA) anwesend, arbeitet als Templat in Telomerasen für DNA-Synthese und hat außerdem wichtige Funktionen in der RNA-Spaltung, z.B. bei Ribozymen wie RNAse P inne. Betreffend bestimmter Spaltstellen in RNA hat auch das Phänomen der siRNA beträchtliche Aufmerksamkeit in diesem Prozess erregt. Der sogenannte RISC-Komplex wird programmiert, einzelsträngige RNA mit hoher Sequenz-Spezifität zu schneiden. Die für die RNA-Interferenz verantwortliche zelluläre Maschinerie ist auch an der Bilbung von MikroRNAs beteiligt. RNA-Interferenz ist heute eines der nützlichsten Werkzeuge in functional genomics geworden. Die große Hoffnung ist, dass es auch vielleicht in der Therapie angewandt werden könnte. Das Thema meiner Doktorarbeit trägt den Titel „Synthesis of Site-Specific Artificial Ribonucleases“. Es beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung künstlicher bindungsspezifischer Ribonucleasen. Diese künstlichen Katalysatoren sind im Wesentlichen aus drei Gründen bedeutsam: Zum einen liegt eine mögliche Anwendung in der Affinity-Cleavage (Affinitätsspaltung), eine Technik, die Bindungsstellen von RNA-Liganden durch das kovalente Anbringen eines Reagenzes lokalisiert, das zwischen den Nukleinsäuren schneidet. Zum anderen entsteht die Möglichkeit, neue Werkzeuge für eine gezielte Manipulation großer RNA-Moleküle zu schaffen. Die Vorteile des Ansatzes sind, dass man damit beliebige Zielsequenzen anwählen kann. Das Problem dieser Strategie ist die Notwendigkeit, hohe Genauigkeit im Spaltungssschritt zu erreichen, wie zum Beispiel mit natürlichen Ribozymen. Wichtige Ergebnisse wurden auch während meiner Arbeit erhalten, mit einem Fall von genauer Spaltung zwischen zwei Basen. Der dritte Grund ist die potentielle Anwendung als katalytische antisense-Oligonucleotide in der Chemotherapie. Gegenwärtig existieren zwei Ansätze, unspezifische künstliche RNasen relativ kleiner Größe zu schaffen. Der erste basiert auf Metallkomplexen und führt im Allgemeinen zu höheren Raten. Die Idee ist, ein Metall als elektrophiles Zentrum zur Unterstützung der Transesterfikation zu nutzen. Unter diesen Katalysatoren enthalten die effizientesten Lanthanid-Ionen, Cu2+ und Zn2+. Der zweite Ansatz zielt darauf ab, metallfreie künstliche Ribonucleasen zu entwickeln. Die Vorteile dieser Strategie sind, den Katalysator von der Stabilität der Metallkomplexe, die in vivo problematisch sein könnten, unabhängig zu machen. In diesem Ansatz wird die natürliche Katalyse durch Enzyme simuliert. Zweckmäßige Gruppen mit beschränkter katalytischer Aktivität z.B. als Nucleophile, Säuren oder Basen, werden in einer Weise zusammengesetzt, um Kooperation zu ermöglichen. Potente Katalysatoren können so ohne die Notwendigkeit von Metallen als Cofaktoren erzeugt werden. ...
Photosystem II (PSII) is a polypeptide-cofactor complex organised as a homodimeric multisubunit protein embedded in the thylakoid membrane. PSII monomers are heterooligomers related to each other by a pseudo-twofold axis perpendicular to the membrane plane (Loll et al. 2005). PSII acts as a photochemical enzyme that through the chlorophylls and the other cofactors catalyses photon capture and electron transfer from water to the plastoquinone pool with concomitant evolution of oxygen. Photon capture and charge separation take place in the PSII core which consists of the D1 and D2 proteins, the cytochrome b559 alpha- and beta-chains (PsbE and F subunits) and the chlorophyll a-binding antenna proteins CP43 and CP47 (Loll et al. 2005). The remaining polypeptides are low molecular mass proteins with not clearly understood fuctions; they include chloroplast-encoded (PsbH, I, J, K, L, M, N, T and Z) and nucleus-encoded (PsbR, S, W and X) proteins consisting of one to four transmembrane helices (Barber et al. 1997). The oxygen-evolving part of PSII consists of a Mn-Ca transition complex called Mn cluster or oxygen evolving complex that is situated on the luminal side of PSII. In higher plants it is stabilised by the PsbO (33 kDa), PsbP (23 kDa) and PsbQ (17 kDa) extrinsic subunits (Soursa et al. 2006; Ifuku et al. 2005). The structure and mechanisms related to the oxygen evolving complex of PSII are not completely clarified. Currently two high resolution structures from the cyanobacteria S. elongatus are available (Loll et al. 2005; Ferreira et al. 2004) Nevertheless structural information is not as well defined in green algae and higher plants as in cyanobacteria. In fact the 8Å structure available from spinach has too low resolution for addressing questions such as the structural and functional differences in respect to PSII from cyanobateria (Rhee et al. 1997).. Therefore it is obvious that for PSII from higher plants the main general questions are still open: is the structure of PSII from higher plants equivalent to the structures observed in cyanobacteria? Is the typical higher plants subunit PsbS stably or transiently bound to PSII? Finding an answer to these questions was the main focus of this work. In this work a simple and rapid protocol to isolate the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) core complex from Nicotiana tabacum was developed. A PSII having a His-tag extension made of six or ten consecutive histidine residues at the N-terminus of the PsbE subunit was purified by a single-step Ni2+ NTA-affinity column chromatography after solubilisation of the thylakoid membranes using different mild detergents. Characterization of the oxygen evolution and the subunit composition by immunoblotting and mass spectroscopy revealed that the His-tagging did not affect the functional integrity of the PSII reaction center. The final PSII core complex was purified in a single step from solubilised thylakoids in less than 14 hours getting a very pure sample in high amount. The isolated core complex was in a dimeric form as demonstrated by Blue Native PAGE, analytical gel filtration and single particles analysis; with a molecular mass of about 500 kDa, consisting of D1, D2, CP43, CP47, 33 kDa and low molecular weight proteins. The preparation retains a high rate of oxygen-evolving activity but showed different stabilities of the binding of the three extrinsic proteins. The subunit of 33 kDa was always present in the preparations with a constant amount, whereas the 23 and 17 kDa subunits were always in less and unconstant amounts. Nevertheless the oxygen evolution was not depending on the amount of the 23 and 17 kDa subunits. Furthermore the preparation showed a high oxygen-evolving activity of 1390 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in presence of betaine, while its activity was 440-680 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in its absence. The presence of 1.0 mol/L betaine during the isolation of PSII increased the preservation of the photochemical activity hence the oxygen evolution. It was inferred from these results that His-tagging does not affect the functional and structural integrity of the PSII core complex and that the “Histag strategy” is highly useful for biochemical, physicochemical and structural studies of higher plant PSII. PSII is directly involved in two essential processes, the efficient capture and funnelling of light energy to the reaction centre and the controlled dissipation of excess excitation energy. Those functions require structural and functional flexibility in order to be performed with high efficiency. Moreover light-harvesting proteins respond to an external signal, the thylakoid pH, to induce feedback control regulating those activities in every moment. This process called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is mainly depending on the xanthophyll cycle and the PsbS protein (Szabo et al. 2005). In this work several new evidences related with those two processes were found. The subunit PsbS is a polypeptide whose involvement in the NPQ processes is debated. Nevertheless, its position in the PSII complex and the mechanisms by which this subunit contributes to carry out the NPQ functions are not definitely known. In addition it is not sure if it is a pigment binding protein or not. Currently several lines of evidence indicate that this subunit is able to bind two molecules of zeaxanthin, one of the pigments involved in the xanthophyll cycle. In this work immunolabelling indicated that PsbS is tightly bound to the PSII core dimer, monomer and incomplete PSII particles as Reaction Centre-CP47 (RC-CP47). Furthermore qualitative HPLC indicates a complete absence of zeaxanthin in the sample and the presence of violaxanthin, another pigment involved in the xanthophyll cycle. The absence of zeaxanthin was expected considering that the plants were harvested after the dark period and that the particles were purified in complete dark (or in green light), whereas the presence of violaxanthin was unexpected considering that so far no evidence of violaxanthin bound to PSII cores devoid of LHC proteins was reported. Furthermore the amount of chlorophyll b was not relevant for suspecting this pigment bound to PsbS. Therefore we conclude that if PsbS is able to bind chlorophyll it has to be a chlorophyll a. The results indicate that PsbS could be able to bind not only zeaxanthin but also violaxanthin. The extrinsic subunit Psb27 was also found in this preparation. The presence and the amount of this subunit, reported to be involved in the repair of damaged PSII, was not constant and therefore behaving as the other two extrinsic proteins 23kDa (PsbP) and 17kDa (PsbQ). Electron crystallography studies on spinach PSII particles purified by differential solubilisation resulted in crystalline tubes with new unit cell constants. From data analysis a density map at 15Å resolution was obtained with a P22121 symmetry. However, at this resolution it cannot be said if the internal symmetry axis is related with the two-fold axis of the dimer or the pseudo two-fold axis of the monomer. In conclusion a method to isolate functional, pure PSII core complexes was developped. These samples, together with the improved 2d crystallisation protocol could lead to crystals with higher quality hence better resolution density maps in the future.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), also referred to as marrow stromal cells, maintain the capacity to differentiate into multiple mesenchymal lineages such as osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, myoblasts, stromal, neural and endothelial cells. The use of autologous MSC has generated widespread interest due to their developing application in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering in orthopedic surgery. They have become an indispensable cell source for successful implementation in many bone reconstruction procedures. In addition to their multipotency and selfrenewal capacity, they are easily harvested, have demonstrated a homing mechanism and can be efficiently expanded in vitro, thus providing a safe and costefficient tissue replacement for patients with skeletal injury or disease. Little information is currently available concerning donor characteristics for tissue engineering growth of osseous tissue. This study examines the influences of such donor characteristics, including injury pattern, gender, age, and site of harvest on the quantity, quality and osteogenic differentiation of MSC. The goal is to evaluate whether certain patient groups are practically suitable for an ex vivo expansion and therapeutic reimplantation of MSC. The effect of injury pattern on the reservoir and proliferative capacity of MSC in human bone marrow is clearly demonstrated in this analysis. Age and gender were also shown to influence MSC number and proliferation, as in previous studies. A total of 53 participants (46 patients and 7 healthy volunteers ranging from 18 to 64 years of age), who were scheduled to undergo operative procedures on the pelvis, vertebrae, tibia or hip as well as cancellous bone autografts for reconstruction of various bone defects, were included in the study. Participants were divided into 4 groups for each gender: single fracture, multiple trauma, atrophic nonunion and healthy volunteers. A minimum of 6 ml bone marrow samples were aspirated intraoperatively and processed immediately according to protocol. Following cultivation and expansion for 14 days, the cells were then stained for the colony forming unit-fibroblast (CFU-F) assay and each culture flask was photographed, digitized and converted to an 8 bit grey level TIF-format. Using the digitized CFU-F assay, the mean colony number, mean colony area and mean cell number per microscopic field of view (cell density) could be determined. In addition, confirmation of MSC phenotype was established using fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). MSC potential for osteogenic differentiation was quantified by von Kossa, alkaline phosphatase and alizarin staining. Furthermore, serum from a total of 39 randomly chosen participants was collected and tested for hormone levels of 17β-estradiol, testosterone and prolactin as well as the cytokine interleukin-6. These analyses demonstrate several significant trauma-related modifications in MSC reservoir and proliferation, in both male and female patients. In multiple trauma patients, the highest MSC frequency was found, independent of gender and age. Proliferative capacity was also highest in male multiple trauma patients. In the case of atrophic nonunion, the lowest MSC reservoir was detected, independent of gender. Furthermore, MSC frequency in male patients was significantly higher than in female, although analyses of hormone and interleukin-6 levels provided no correlation. Agerelated changes in MSC reservoir could also be observed, whereas the proliferative capacity produced only a tendency toward decreasing values with increasing age. Concerning the site of cell harvest, MSC isolated from the proximal extremity of the tibia, greater trochanter and vertebral body did not proliferate sufficiently enough to be included in statistical analysis, supporting the use of the iliac crest for efficient expansion of MSC. This data suggests the interaction of yet to be identified processes in bone marrow in multiple trauma situations which stimulate the activation and mobilization of MSC. Moreover, in the case of atrophic nonunion, the concentration in bone marrow is depleted and the absence of systemic stimulation present in multiple trauma results in reduced activation of proliferative capacity. Such patients, with severe injury or atrophic nonunion, represent a group of patients with an especially acute necessity for effective and successful bone reconstruction. This data can be used to determine the applicability of MSC from various patient groups for osseous tissue replacement procedures. Especially in such medically challenging situations, further research is essential not only to delineate the factors involved in MSC regulation but also to develop methods to stimulate MSC expansion and proliferation.
Background The purpose of the trial was to evaluate the safety and performance of the new Protégé stent in the treatment of common and/or internal carotid artery stenoses. Methods The Protégé® GPS stent is a self-expanding Nitinol stent system. It is mounted on a 6 Fr 0.018” (6-9mm stent) or 7 Fr, 0.035” (10mm stent) over-the-wire-delivery system and includes a new stent release system which allows exact placement of the stent. Seventyseven patients were enrolled in the trial. Study patient assessments were conducted clinically and by duplex scan at baseline, peri-procedure, discharge, one and six months post procedure. Results Seventyseven lesions were treated. Thirtyone lesions were symptomatic, 46 lesions were asymptomatic. The procedure was technically successful in 76 (99%) lesions. The percentage of stenosis was reduced from 86 ± 7 % to 16 ± 8 %. One procedure failed because the embolic protection device could not be retrieved and the patient was sent to surgery. Within 30 days there were 4 (5.2%) Major Adverse Neurological Events (MANEs). Three of the MANEs were major strokes (3.9%), one a minor stroke. The fifth MANE occurred prior to the six month follow-up visit; this patient had a major stroke 75 days after the procedure and died 36 days later. One additional death occurred due to urosepsis. Conclusions The trial shows that the Protégé stent satisfies safety and performance criteria for the treatment of carotid artery stenosis. The complication rate was comparable to the incidence of these events in other recent carotid stent and endarterectomy studies.
Aims: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and short-term efficacy of transcatheter paravalvular leak closure using different occlusion devices. Methods and Results: Twenty one patients underwent transcatheter closure of either aortic or mitral paravalvular leak from June 2002 to February 2006 using the Amplatzer PDA, ASD or VSD occluder. All patients had symptoms and signs of haemolysis and/or cardiac decompensation with dyspnoea. Implantation of a device was technically successful in twenty patients (95 %). Immediate residual leak was found in seventeen patients (85 %). Significant shunting persisted in nine cases during follow up (45 %). Permanent leaflet obstruction was observed in one patient. Severe complications during follow up led to early death in one patient and surgical intervention in three. A successful second catheter treatment was performed in another three patients. The event-free survival from reoperation, death and stroke at the end of the observation period was 80 %. Conclusion: Transcatheter closure of paravalvular leaks is a technically feasible, but demanding procedure. Residual leaks are common and may worsen pre-existing haemolysis. Due to the significant ongoing morbidity in this group of patients and the complexity of follow up individual patient results differ considerably. Nevertheless, it is possible to achieve some symptomatic relief, thus an interventional approach should be discussed as a potential treatment option for those patients with a limited defect and who are not deemed suitable for another operation.
NE Mount Kenya is characterised by dense population and small scale farming is the main form of land use. In the region, continual pressure on the forest resources as result of land use is a continuing problem. The NE Mount Kenya Forest Reserves (Imenti Forest Reserve, Mount Kenya Forest Reserve) play an important role in the livelihood of the neighbouring communities. However population pressure, reserve management policies, economic changes, an ineffective land tenure system and poverty are socio-economic factors contributing to land use changes and an intensification of agriculture. Illegal factors like clearing forest vegetation for firewood and grazing areas, at the expense of the protected forest areas, are present. This study focuses on an interdisplinary approach to analyse socio-economic and ecological factors in NE Mount Kenya relevant to land degradation. This includes remote sensing data (interpretation of satellite images Landsat TM 1987 and ETM 2000) combined with interviews from the land user’s perspective. Ethnographic research of this type on this topic has not been done in the region before. This entailed applying both a qualitative (giving farmers the opportunity to identify factors they perceived as important in regard to land use) and a quantitative method of data analysis. The Mount Kenya Forest region is distinguished by high elevation and a humid to sub-humid climate, while the Imenti Forest region lies lower and is characterised by semi-humid and transitional zones. Land use in the Mount Kenya Forest region is mainly perennial thus eliminating seasonal land use changes. In the Imenti Forest region, 30% of the farmers said they had gone through major land use changes within the last 20 years. The major land use change consisted of a shift from residential farming in the protected areas which offered more farming and grazing areas, to being restricted to individual farm plots which consequently led to the intensification of cultivation thus contributing to land degradation. The satellite images in the same region show a clear decrease in coverage of forest vegetation and an increase in open areas in the Imenti Forest region which the farmers explain influences the tentative land use changes in the region. On the other hand, in the Mount Kenya forest region, there has been an increase in forest vegetation cover which is also evident in the satellite images. Areas that were plantation and cultivated regions in 1987 have forest cover in 2000, which the farmers stated was as a result of their afforestation initiatives. Nevertheless, indicators of degradation e.g. rill and gully erosion are evident and correlated to the intensified land use in both forest regions. The population impact in the region apparently intensifies land use therefore the identified socio-economic factors in the region should be given priority in integrating development projects that are directly beneficial to park-adjacent communities according to the needs of the particular agro-ecological zone (AEZ). Location specific research can better enhance the understanding of the socio-economic factors influencing land use change. Furthermore, promoting alternative income generating activities, besides the present livestock and crop farming, can help reduce the risks of land degradation.
The search for a modification of hadron properties inside nuclear matter at normal and/or high temperature and density is one of the more interesting issues of modern nuclear physics. Dilepton experiments, by providing interesting results, give insight into the properties of strong interaction and the nature of hadron mass generation. One of these research tools is the HADES spectrometer. HADES is a high acceptance dilepton spectrometer installed at the heavy-ion synchrotron (SIS) at GSI, Darmstadt. The main physics motivation of HADES is the measurement of e+e- pairs in the invariant-mass range up to 1 GeV/c2 in pion- and proton-induced reactions, as well as in heavy-ion collisions. The goal is to investigate the properties of the vector mesons rho, omega and of other hadrons reconstructed from e+e- decay pairs. Dileptons are penetrating probes allowing to study the in-medium properties of hadrons. However, the measurement of such dilepton pairs is difficult because of a very large background from other processes in which leptons are created. This thesis presents the analysis of the data provided by the first physic run done with the HADES spectrometer. For the first time e+e- pairs produced in C+C collisions at an incident energy of 2 GeV per nucleon have been collected with sufficient statistics. This experiment is of particular importance since it allows to address the puzzling pair excess measured by the former DLS experiment at 1.04 AGeV. The thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter presents the physics case which is addressed in the work. In the second chapter the HADES spectrometer is introduced with the characteristic of specific detectors which are part of the spectrometer. Chapter three focusses on the issue of charged-particle identification. The fourth chapter discusses the reconstruction of the di-electron spectra in C+C collisions. In this part of the thesis a comparison with theoretical models is included as well. The conclusion and final remarks are given in chapter five.
End-stage renal disease has been denominated a vasculopathic state, owing to the accelerated arterial stiffening, which occurs in addition to and independent of atherosclerosis and bears an increased cardiovascular risk. The altered metabolic milieu in uraemia leads to an increased oxidative stress, heightened inflammatory burden, and an abnormal calcium-phosphate metabolism, which are thought to be responsible for the vascular changes. The pulse wave velocity (PWV) is a widely employed surrogate parameter of arteriosclerosis. The purpose of this study was to gain more insight into the pathogenesis of arterial stiffness, by investigating the influence of markers of oxidative stress, procoagulation, and inflammation, and of the calcium-phosphate product on the PWV. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 53 stable patients aged 59 ± 16 years, who had been on haemodialysis for at least 4 months (68 ± 48). Carotid-radial PWV was measured using a semi-automated device, Complior SP (Artech Medical, France). Advanced glycosylation end-products (AGE) and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), were quantified according to previously described methods. High sensitive CRP was measured using ELISA, whereas the other biochemical parameters, i.e. fibrinogen, albumin, calcium, phosphate, cholesterol, and triglycerides, were determined using routine methods. For statistical calculations we employed SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Science, 12.0, 2003). The correlations between PWV, as the dependent variable, and many dependent variables were assessed by means of multiple regression analysis, in which we controlled for the influence of the traditional cardiovascular risk factors and some of the patients’ medication (calcium-channel blockers and statins). PWV was found to be significantly correlated to serum CRP (p=0.003), LDLcholesterol (p<0.001), triglycerides (p<0.001), AGE (p=0.002), calcium (p<0.001), phosphate (p=0.001), and fibrinogen (p=0.020). Between PWV and dialysis duration (months) an interesting quadratic relationship (p=0.058) was noted. Against expectation, regression analysis showed a negative correlation between AOPP and PWV (p=0.001). We failed to confirm the correlation between PWV and age, systolic blood pressure, or heart rate. Among traditional cardiovascular risk factors only LDL-cholesterol was positively correlated to PWV. In this cross-sectional analysis we could put forward that PWV correlates positively and significantly with fibrinogen, CRP, AGEs, calcium, phosphate, and LDL-cholesterol in haemodialysis patients. It seems procoagulatory and proinflammatory pathways, oxidative stress, and the calcium-phosphate product exert a synergistic effect on disturbances of vascular architecture in ESRD patients.
The topic of this thesis is the functional renormalization group. We discuss some approximations schemes. Thereafter we apply these approximations to study different fields of condensed matter physics. Generally we have to evaluate an infinite set of vertex functions describing the scattering of particles. These vertex functions get renormalized away from their bare values governed by an infinite hierarchy of flow equations. We cannot expect to actually solve these equations but have to apply a couple of approximations. The aim is to somehow separate relevant contributions from irrelevant ones. One possible scheme opens up if we rescale fields and vertices. Here "relevance" is used in a quantitative way to describe the scaling behaviour of vertices close to a fixed point of the RG. One disadvantage of describing the system in terms of infinitely many vertices is that the majority of these vertices we have to evaluate are not of interest to us. In most cases we are just looking for the self-energy or the two-particle effective interaction. However there might be contributions to the flow of these vertices that are generated by irrelevant vertices. We generally assume that we can express irrelevant vertices in terms of the relevant and marginal ones. Then in turn it should be possible to write the contributions of these irrelevant vertices to the flow of relevant and marginal ones in terms of relevant and marginal vertices as well. We show how this can be achieved by what we term the adiabatic approximation. We now consider weakly interacting bosons at the critical point of Bose-Einstein condensation. As the transition takes place at a finite temperature this temperature defines an effective ultraviolet cut-off. For the investigation of physical properties that depend on momenta smaller than this cut-off it is therefore sufficient to describe the system by a classical field theory. Our central topic here is the self-energy of the bosons and we are able to evaluate it with the full momentum dependence. For small momenta it approaches a scaling form and as the momentum is gradually increased we observe a crossover to the perturbative regime. As a test for the reliability of our expression for the selfenergy we investigate the interaction induced shift of the critical. Our results compare quite satisfactory to the best available estimates for this shift. For the anomalous dimension our approach predicts the correct order of magnitude however with a considerable error. As an improvement we include more vertices into our calculations. Here we observe that our fixed point estimates indeed approach the best known results but this convergence is quite weak. We turn toward systems of interacting fermions. The formulation of the functional renormalization group implicitly requires knowledge of the true Fermi surface of the full interacting system. In general however we can just calculate it a-posteriori from the self-energy. The requirement to flow into a fixed point can be translated into a fine-tuning of the frequency/momentum independent part r_0 of the rescaled 2-point function. We show how this bare value is related to the momentum dependent effective interaction along the complete trajectory of the RG. On the other hand r_0 expresses the difference between the bare and the true Fermi surface. Putting both equations together results into an exact selfconsistency equation for the Fermi surface. We apply our self-consistency equation above to tackle the problem of finding the true Fermi surface of interacting fermions in low dimensions. The most simple non-trivial model with an inhomogeneous Fermi surface is a system of two coupled metallic chains. The process of interband backward scattering leads to a smoothing of the Fermi surface. Of special interest is if the Fermi momenta of the two bands collapse into just one value. We propose the term confinement transition for this behaviour. We bosonize the interband backward scattering by means of a Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation and treat our system as a single channel problem. This bosonization together with the adiabatic approximation allows us to investigate the system even at strong coupling. Within a simple one-loop treatment our method predicts a confinement transition at strong coupling. However taken vertex renormalizations into account we observe that this confinement is destroyed by fluctuations beyond one-loop. Actually we observe how the confined phase can be stabilized by the inclusion of interband umklapp scattering. Thereafter we consider the physically more relevant case of a two-dimensional system of infinitely many coupled metallic chains. Here the Fermi surface consists of two disconnected weakly curved sheets. We are able to repeat the calculations we have performed for our toy model. Within a self-consistent 2-loop calculation indeed signs for a confinement transition at finite coupling strength emerge.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute an important class of integral membrane proteins that are involved in several signaling pathways. About 50% of the currently available drugs are targeted against these receptors and high-resolution structures of these receptors will be of immense importance from the perspective of designing specific and potent drugs. However, structure determination of these receptors and of membrane proteins in general, has been a very challenging task till date. A major limitation in the structure determination of these proteins is that they are present in minute amounts in the native tissues and therefore, they must be produced heterologously. Additionally, crystallization of GPCRs is difficult owing to their flexible nature and limited hydrophilic surface area available for crystal contacts. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis work is two fold, first, to address the problem of GPCR crystallization by using a fusion protein complex approach and second, to tailor Rhodobacter sphaeroides as an expression system for the heterologous production of GPCRs. In the first approach, R. sphaeroides was used as an expression system to generate a fusion protein complex of the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) with a GPCR, expecting that such a complex would be easier to crystallize than the receptor alone. The notion behind this approach is that the RC will act as a scaffold in providing surface area to create crystal contacts and at the same time, it will also reduce the flexibility of the receptor, hopefully without perturbing the functionality of the receptor. Based on the computational modelling experiments, two ways to generate a fusion complex were assigned. Long linkers were inserted between the subunits of the RC and the GPCR. The linkers were designed with a possibility of straightforward alteration of their length as they contained a number of restriction enzyme sites. A series of these constructs were designed and expressed in R. sphaeroides deletion strain, which did not possess the chromosomal RC genes. Though most of these fusion constructs could be successfully expressed, as analyzed by western blot, majority of them were not functional in terms of ligand binding of the GPCR component of the fusion complex. Interestingly, one of these constructs, where the M subunit of RC was directly fused to the human angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR), exhibited significant functional expression. Based on saturation binding analysis using [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8-angiotensin II (an AT1aR subtype specific antagonist), an expression level of 40+5 pmol/mg of total membrane protein was calculated. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.3 mg of functional receptor per liter culture and it is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. Additionally, the binding affinity of the recombinant receptor for its endogenous ligand angiotensin II was found to be 1±0.1 nM, which is similar to that observed for the AT1aR in native tissues. More interestingly, the RC part of the fusion complex was structurally assembled in other words, properly folded as judged by the presence of the characteristic peaks at 760 nm, 800 nm and 850 nm by absorption spectroscopy. However, a slight change in the intensity of the peak at 800 nm was observed while comparing the spectra of native RC with that in the fusion protein complex. This slight variation might be due to the change in the protein environment. The fusion protein complex RC-AT1aR was functionally solubilized and purified using a decahistidine tag fused at the c-terminus of the AT1aR. Subsequently, the monodispersity and integrity of the complex was confirmed by size exclusion chromatography, which revealed a homogeneous peak. Additionally, it was also possible to solubilize and purify this complex in the presence of a fluorescein tagged angiotensin II ligand which provides a nice tool to judge the functionality of the AT1aR and integrity of the complex at the same time. The purified RC-AT1aR fusion complex was then subjected to three-dimensional (3-D) crystallization trials and it was possible to obtain reproducible crystals of this complex. The crystals were fluorescent (as the complex was purified in presence of fluorescently labelled angiotensin II) and needle or tetragonal in shape, but produced a powdery diffraction pattern. Further attempts to improve the crystallization condition and to optimize the cryo-conditions are underway. In addition, attempts are also being made to obtain the crystals of this complex with the antagonist (e.g. losartan) bound to the receptor. In view of several limitations in the heterologous expression of GPCRs, as the second part of my Ph.D. thesis, I decided to explore the possibilities of developing a novel expression system based on R. sphaeroides for production of recombinant GPCRs. The notion behind using this host is that lack of inclusion bodies and high concentration of membranes in R. sphaeroides would result in efficient functional overexpression of recombinant membrane proteins. For this purpose, a R. sphaeroides strain, modified by the deletion of the genes encoding the RC and the light harvesting proteins LH1 and LH2, was used. The genes for RC and LHs constitute about 85-90% of total membrane proteins in a R. sphaeroides cell. These membranes are normally housed in special membrane vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes (ICMs) that can fill almost the entire cell volume under certain growth conditions. Synthesis of a heterologous protein under the control of the moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter should be coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour these proteins, thus acting as a natural induction system. Moreover, as most of the native membrane proteins are absent in this deletion strain, heterologously produced protein should not experience a shortage of molecular chaperones for proper folding and insertion. Additionally, the absence of inclusion bodies in this host should enhance the functional and homogenous population of the recombinant proteins. Three human GPCRs, namely the adenosine A2a receptor (A2a), the angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR) and the bradykinin subtype 2 receptor (B2R) were tested for expression and functionality in this system. Two different constructs were used to determine the optimal position and ribosome-binding site (RBS) in the superoperon for the highest expression level. Of these three receptors, the AT1aR and B2R were successfully produced, while the A2aR failed to express, producing green carotenoid free R. sphaeroides mutants, for unknown reasons. For the recombinant B2R, [3H] bradykinin binding analysis revealed a low functional expression level of 0.7-0.8 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to 0.01 mg functional receptor per liter of culture and is not sufficient for large-scale expression of this receptor. However, for the recombinant AT1aR, [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8- angiotensin II binding analysis revealed an expression level of 12±1 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.1 mg functional receptor per liter culture and this is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. This expression system is still in the nascent stages of development and there are several parameters, which are still to be assessed for the optimal use of this system for the production of GPCRs and other membrane proteins. In conclusion, my Ph.D. work presents a novel fusion protein complex based approach for obtaining crystallizable GPCRs and a novel expression system for producing heterologous GPCRs. It was possible, for the first time, to produce a functional RC-GPCR complex that could easily be crystallized, though further finetuning of the system is required. R. sphaeroides based novel expression system was successfully used to produce functional human GPCRs under the control of a moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter. This expression system represents a naturally induced system where the expression of a heterologous protein is coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour the recombinant protein. The fusion protein complex approach and the expression system presented here can hopefully be used as a general method to facilitate the expression and crystallization of other membrane proteins.
Intrinsic response properties of auditory thalamic neurons in the Gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus)
(2007)
Neurons in the medial geniculate body (MGB) have the complex task of processing the auditory ascending information from the periphery and a more extensive descending input from the cortex. Differences in the pattern of afferent and efferent neuronal connections suggest that neurons in the ventral and dorsal divisions of the MGB take different roles in this complex task. The ventral MGB (vMGB) is the primary, tonotopic, division and the dorsal MGB (dMGB) is one of the higher order, nontonotopic divisions. The vMGB neurons are arranged tonotopically, have sharp tuning properties, and a short response delay to acoustic stimuli. The dMGB neurons are not tonotopically arranged, have broad tuning properties, and a long response delay to acoustical stimuli. These two populations of neurons, with inherently different tasks, may display differences in intrinsic physiological properties, e.g. the capacity to integrate information on a single cell level. Neurons of the ventral and dorsal divisions of the MGB offer an ideal system to explore and compare the intrinsic neuronal properties related to auditory processing. Coronal slices of 200 μm thicknesses were prepared from the thalamus of 4 - 5 week old gerbils. The current-clamp configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used to do experiments on the dorsal and ventral divisions of the medial geniculate body. Slices were subsequently Nissl stained to verify the location of recording. Recordings from the dorsal and ventral divisions exhibited differences in response to depolarizing current injections. The ventral division responded with significantly shorter first spike latency (vMGB = 41.50 ± 7.7, dMGB = 128.43 ± 16.28; (p < 0.01)) and rise time constant (vMGB = 6.95 ± 0.90, dMGB = 116.67 ± 0.13; (p < 0.01)) than the dMGB. Neurons in the dorsal division possessed a larger proportion of slowly accommodating neurons (rapidly accommodating: vMGB: 89%, dMGB: 64%), including a subpopulation of neurons that fired at resting membrane potential. Neurons in the vMGB are primarily responsible for relaying primary auditory input. Dorsal MGB neurons relay converging multimodal input. A comparative analysis with the primary auditory neurons, the Type I and Type II spiral ganglion neurons, reveals a similar pattern. Type I neurons relay primary auditory input and exhibit short first spike latencies and rise time constants. The Type II neurons relay converging input from many sources, while possessing significantly slower response properties and a greater subpopulation of slowly accommodating neurons. Hence, accommodation, first spike latency, and rise time constant are suggested to be a reflection of the amount of input that must be integrated before an action potential can be fired. More converging input correlates to slower accommodation, a longer first spike latency and rise time. Conversely, a greater capacity to derive discrete input is associated with rapid accommodation, along with a short first spike latency and rise time.
The work presented in this thesis addresses a key issue of the CBM experiment at FAIR, which aims to study charm production in heavy ion collisions at energies ranging from 10 to 40 AGeV . For the first time in this kinematical range, open charm mesons will be used as a probe of the nuclear fireball. Despite of their short decay length, which is typically in the order of few 100 µm in the laboratory frame, those mesons will be identified by reconstructing their decay vertex.
This dissertation contains five independent chapters dealing with wage dispersion and unemployment. The first chapter deals with the explanation of international changes in wage inequality and unemployment in the 80s and 90s. Both theoretically and empirically, social benefits and its link to average income are blamed for the different experiences across countries. The second chapter discusses the search framework, to explain residual wage inequality and finds that institutional wage compression has ambiguous effects on employment. In the third chapter, we apply the theory to German data. We show that job-to-job transitions are important in explaining both frictions and career advances. In the fourth chapter, we empirically assess the relationship between wage dispersion and unemployment for homogeneous workers. We find that neither a frictional nor a neo-classical view in explaining this relationship are convincing. Unemployment within cells is not negatively correlated with wage dispersion. Finally, the last chapter builds a theoretical model which treats heterogeneous individuals in a production function framework and a frictional labor market. The model generates both wage dispersion within and between skill groups and both frictional and structural unemployment. In sum, the dissertation stresses the importance of modelling frictions to understand different types of wage inequality and unemployment.
Spatio-temporal dynamics of primary lymphoid follicles during organogenesis and lymphneogenesis
(2007)
Primary lymphoid follicles are structures which are important for adaptive immune responses in mammals. Within the follicles follicular dendritic cells (FDC) are maintained by constant stimuli provided by B cells. It is thought that the FDC are important for immune response. It is of interest to know how lymphoid follicles are regulated in order to understand their role in various autoimmune diseases in which these follicles are created ectopically. With the help of a tissue simulation relying on an agent-based cell model on top of a regular triangulation various scenarios suggested by the available experimental data have been investigated. In order to cope with the complexity in the simulation of immune tissue the regular triangulation has been implemented for the use on parallel computers. The algorithms for kinetic and dynamic regular triangulation have been created newly. Also the cell model underlying the simulation has been designed newly in many aspects. The simulations allowed to identify common factors that regulate the formation of lymphoid follicles normally during organogenesis in development and lymphneogenesis in the course of diseases. The generation of FDC from local stromal populations under the influence of B cell aggregates is shown to be possible with the given experimental parameters. The sequence of the organogenesis and lymphneogenesis can be described with regard to the morphology of the B and T zone. Tests for the stability of the primary lymphoid follicle system constraints the regulation of the B cell efflux. The required lymphatic vessels around the lymphoid follicle are shown to be negatively correlated with the FDC network. Moreover it is shown that the adjacent T zone consisting of its own stromal population and T cells has similar regulation principles. This easily explains the intermediate ring of B cells found around the T zone during development and certain signaling molecule deficiencies. A major result of this thesis is that the generation of FDC needs negative regulation while a number of other possible mechanisms is incompatible with the available experimental data. Moreover the observed microanatomy was brought into a functional relationship with data on the cellular level finally culminating in the proposal of new experiments that shed light on the dynamics of the primary lymphoid follicle. One conclusion is that the FDC directly or indirectly influence the angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis processes in secondary lymphoid tissues. The work presented here may help to guide experiments with the help of computers in order to reduce the amount of experiments and design them in a way to maximize the amount of information about biological systems.
Rhythmic changes in environmental lighting conditions have ever been the most reliable environmental cue for life on earth. Nature has therefore selected a genetically encrypted endogenous clock very early in evolution, as it provided cells and subsequently organisms with the ability to anticipate persevering periods of light and darkness. Rhythm generation within the mammalian circadian system is achieved by clock genes and their protein products. The mammalian endogenous master clock, which synchronizes the body to environmental time, is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. As an integral part of the time-coding system, the pineal gland serves the need to tune the body to the temporal environment by the rhythmic nocturnal synthesis and immediate release of the hormone melatonin. In contrast to the transcriptional regulation of melatonin synthesis in rodents, a post-translational shaping is indicated in the human pineal gland. Another important mediator of circadian time and seasonality to the body is the pituitary gland. The aim of this work was to elucidate regulation of melatonin synthesis in the human pineal gland. Furthermore, presence and regulation of clock genes in the human pineal and pituitary gland, and in the SCN were analyzed. Therefore, human tissue, taken from regular autopsies, was analyzed simultaneously for different parameters involved in melatonin biosynthesis and circadian rhythm generation. Presented data demonstrate that post-mortem brain tissue can be used to detect the remnant profile of pre-mortem adaptive changes in neuronal activity. In particular, our results give strong experimental support for the idea that transcriptional mechanisms are not dominant for the generation of rhythmic melatonin synthesis in the human pineal gland. Together with data obtained for clock genes and their protein products in the pituitary, data presented here offer 1) a new working hypothesis for post-translational regulation of melatonin biosynthesis in the human pineal gland, and 2) a novel twist in the molecular competence of clock gene proteins, achieved by nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling in neuronal and neuroendocrine human tissue. Furthermore, in this study, oscillations in abundance of clock gene proteins were demonstrated for the first time in the human SCN.
The removal of apoptotic cells (AC) can be regarded as an integral component of the program to terminate inflammation. Clearance of AC by professional phagocytes such as macrophages induces an anti-inflammatory phenotype in the latter ones. Anti-inflammatory or M2 polarization is also observed in macrophages infiltrating certain human tumors. These tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) contribute actively to tumor progression by promoting immune evasion, angiogenesis and tumor cell survival. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis was to approach the mechanisms as well as the characteristics of macrophage phenotype alterations induced by AC, and to elucidate a possible connection between tumor cell apoptosis and TAM generation. In the first part of my studies, I investigated the impact of AC on macrophage viability. I could show that macrophage survival against pro-apoptotic agents increased after the interaction with AC. Protection of macrophages against cell death required activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and Ca2+ signaling, and correlated with Bcl-XL and Bcl-2 up-regulation as well as Ser136-Bad phosphorylation. Unexpectedly, neither phagocytosis nor binding of apoptotic debris to the phagocyte was necessary to induce protection. AC released the bioactive lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), dependent on sphingosine kinase (SphK) 2, as a survival messenger. These data indicated an active role of AC in preventing cell destruction in their neighborhood. My next aim was to elucidate the mechanism of S1P production by AC. During cell death, SphK 2 was cleaved at its N-terminus by caspase-1. Thereupon, the truncated but enzymatically active fragment of SphK 2 was released from cells. This release was coupled to phosphatidylserine exposure, a hallmark of apoptosis and a crucial signal for the phagocyte/apoptotic cell interaction. Thus, I observed a link between common signaling events during apoptosis and the extracellular production of S1P, which is known to affect immune cell attraction and polarization as well as angiogenesis in cancer. In the next part of my studies, I asked for a correlation between tumor cell apoptosis and TAM polarization. During co-culture of human macrophages with human breast cancer carcinoma cells (MCF-7), the latter ones were killed, while macrophages acquired an alternatively activated phenotype. This was characterized by decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α; and interleukin (IL)-12-p70 production, but increased formation of IL-8 and IL-10. Alternative macrophage activation required tumor cell death, because a co-culture with apoptosis-resistant colon carcinoma cells (RKO) or Bcl-2-overexpressing MCF-7 cells failed to induce phenotype alterations. These phenotype alterations were also achieved with conditioned media from apoptotic tumor cells, which again argued for a soluble factor being involved. Knock-down of SphK2, but not SphK1, to attenuate S1P formation in MCF-7 cells, repressed the otherwise observed alternative macrophage polarization during co-culture. Furthermore, macrophage polarization achieved by tumor cell apoptosis or substitution of authentic S1P was characterized by suppression of pro-inflammatory nuclear factor (NF)-κB DNA binding. These findings suggested that tumor cell apoptosis-derived S1P contributes to the macrophage polarization present in human tumors. To validate these in vitro data, I used an in vivo tumor model to clarify the relevance of SphK2 and S1P in tumor development. The growth of, as well as blood vessel infiltration into SphK2 knock-down MCF-7 (MCF-7-siSphK2) xenografts in nude mice was markedly decreased in comparison to control MCF-7 xenografts. In contrast, macrophage infiltration was similar or even more pronounced. These data provided a first hint for an in vivo role of SphK2-derived S1P in macrophage polarization associated with tumor promotion. In summary, these data indicate a new mechanism how AC themselves shape macrophage polarization, which results in the termination of inflammatory responses and macrophage survival. Furthermore, my studies present evidence that human tumors may utilize this mechanism to foster growth via increased angiogenesis.
The high energy loss of heavy ions in matter as well as the small angular scattering makes heavy ion beams an excellent tool to produce almost cylindrical and homogeneously excited volumes in matter. This aspect can be used to pump short wavelength lasers. In an experiment performed at the GSI (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung, Darmstadt, Germany) ion accelerator facility in December 2005 the well-known KrF* excimer laser was pumped with an intense high energy uranium beam. Pulses of an uranium beam with initial particle energy of 250 MeV per nucleon, provided by heavy-ion-synchrotron SIS-18, were delivered to the HHT-target station and then stopped inside a gas laser cell. The maximum beam intensity reached in the experiment was 2,5·109 particles per pulse, which resulted in 34 J/g specific energy deposited in the laser gas. By applying electron cooling and a bunch compression technique at SIS-18, the beam pulses were compressed down to 110 ns (FWHM). A mixture of an excimer laser premix gas (95,5% Kr + 0,5% F2) and a buffer gas (Ar 4.8) was used as the laser gas in proportions of 35/65 and 60/40, respectively. The gas pressure inside the laser cell was varied in the range of 1,2÷2 bar in continues flow mode. The experimental setup consisted of a 1 m long stainless steel tube with a number of diagnostic viewports and two mirror adjustment units. The optical cavity was formed by a flat, Alcoated mirror at the beam entrance and a second dielectrically coated, highly reflective mirror with 3 m radius of curvature at a distance of 1,3 m. A beam of heavy ions has been used to pump a short wavelength gas laser for the first time. Laser effect on the KrF* laser transition (λ = 248 nm) has been successfully demonstrated. Laser threshold for this specific setup was reached with a beam intensity of 1,2·109 particles per pulse. Laser action has been clearly proofed by the following methods: appearance of the laser line, spectral narrowing of the laser line, temporal narrowing of the laser signal, non-linear response of the laser output intensity on the pumping power, and cavity disalignment effect. An energy of the laser pulse of about 2 mJ was measured for an ion beam intensity of 2·109 particles per pulse. The time delay of the onset of the laser emission with respect to the pumping pulse was measured as a function of ion beam intensity. The dependence of spontaneous emission spectra on the gas pressure in a range of 1,3÷2 bar was observed and the optimal gas pressure for laser experiments in the sense of laser efficiency was concluded. As a next step in studying short wavelength lasers pumped with heavy ion beams it is planned to reduce the laser wavelength down to the VUV region of the spectrum, and to proceed to the excimer lasers of the pure rare gases: Xe2 * (λ = 172 nm), Kr2 * (λ = 146 nm), Ar2 * (λ = 126 nm), Ne2 * (λ = 83 nm) and He2 * (λ = 80 nm). We believe that the use of heavy ion beams as a pumping source may lead to new pumping schemes on the higher lying level transitions and considerably shorter wavelengths (XUV and X-ray spectral region), which rely on the high cross sections for multiple ionization of the target species.
Imatinib (GleevecTM; GlivecTM; formerly STI571), a specific inhibitor of Abl tyrosine kinase, is efficacious in treating Philadelphiachromosomepositive (Ph+) leukaemias such as chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) and Ph+ acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) (Ottmann, Druker et al. 2002). Within a few years of its introduction to the clinic, Imatinib had dramatically altered the firstline therapy for CML, because it was found that most newly diagnosed CML patients in the chronic phase achieve durable responses when treated with Imatinib (Goldman and Melo 2003). However, a small percentage of these patients, as well as most advancedphase CML and Ph+ ALL patients, relapse on Imatinib therapy (Yokota, Kimura et al. 2006). Several mechanisms of refractoriness and relapse have been reported. These include point mutations within the Abl kinase domain, overexpression of BcrAbl mRNA (Hofmann, Jones et al. 2002), decreased intracellular drug levels mediated by Pglycoprotein (Pgp) (Hegedus, Orfi et al. 2002), and nonBcrAbl dependent mechanisms (activation of the SFKs) (Donato, Wu et al. 2003). In this research work, a possible means of overcoming resistance to Imatinib by the use of the specific dual Src/Abl kinase inhibitor AZD0530 has been investigated. The efficacy of AZD0530 in the treatment of Ph+ leukaemias, sensitive to or resistant to Imatinib, has been tested on cell lines, primary patient material and in vivo in transduction/transplantation mouse model of Imatinib sensitive or resistant BcrAbl dependent CML-like disease. Data with AZD0530 has been compared to cells treated with Imatinib. The potential of inhibiting both Src and Abl kinases while inducing growth arrest and apoptosis has been analysed. AZD0530 specifically inhibited the growth of CML and Ph+ ALL cells in a dosedependent manner, but has shown a marginal effect on Ph- ALL cells. Treatment of p185BcrAbl expressing Ba/F3 cells with AZD0530 has led to apoptosis induction and growth inhibition in these cells, while the untransformed Ba/F3 cells have remained unaffected. Resistance to Imatinib due to mutation in the Ba/F3MutY253F cells has been overcomed by this compound. The growth inhibitory effect of AZD0530 correlates with its induction of apoptosis. Combination of AZD0530 and Imatinib at low concentrations has shown an additive effect on the inhibition of proliferation of BV173 cells. The growth inhibition and apoptosis induction by AZD0530 have shown to be uncoupled to major changes in cell cycle. An exception is the CML blast crisis cell line BV173 which has shown a considerable G0/G1 arrest in the presence of AZD0530 and Imatinib as single agents. Immunoblotting of whole cell lysates from Imatinib or AZD0530 treated BV173, Ba/F3 expressing p185(BcrAbl) MutT253F cells and the WTSupB15 cells, for Src and BcrAbl clearly demonstrates that there is an ongoing transphosphorylation taking place between the SFKs and BcrAbl. This transphosphorylation synergizes and influences the aggressive nature of CML blast crisis and Ph+ ALL. Investigations have been carried out on downstream signaling events to determine how Src family members contribute to BcrAbl signaling. Specifically, Stat, Erk and PI3K/ Akt activation status have been characterised in Imatinib sensitive and resistant Ph+ cells. AZD0530 has significantly downregulated the activation of survival signaling pathways as shown by it’s inhibition of Stat5, Akt and Erk kinases in Ph+ cells, resistant or sensitive to Imatinib. The only exception to this has been the Imatinib resistant cell line RTSupB15, in which activated Akt kinase level has remained unaffected. AZD0530 has shown to be efficient in the treatment of cells isolated from three Ph+ leukaemic patients (resistant or sensitive to Imatinib), and has led to an induction of apoptosis. Equally, in the same patients, growth and survival pathways have been inhibited in vitro in the presence of AZD0530. An overall therapeutic effect of AZD0530 in vivo has been studied in mouse model of Imatinib sensitive and Imatinib resistant, BcrAbldependent desease. Mice with a BcrAbllike disease responded to Imatinib treatment but not to AZD0530. Using the CFU assay, an influence on the differentiation status of primary leukaemic blast stem cells have been tested. The in vivo studies as well as the CFU results have shown discrepancies to the effects of AZD0530 tested so far in this research work. These discrepancies have paralleled with the upregulation of BcrAbl in most AZD0530 treated cells. These are to be further analysed. These data elucidate the role of Src kinases in BcrAbl leukaemogenesis. Results gotten from this research work has shown that AZD0530 targets both Src and BcrAbl kinase activity and reduces the transforming potential of BcrAbl. It also shows that there is an ongoing transphosphorylation between SFKs and BcrAbl kinase. AZD0530 has proven effective in CML cell lines, Ph+ ALL cell lines and patient cells resistant to Imatinib. These have demonstrated that AZD0530 is a potential drug target which can be used to overcome Imatinib resistance.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive technique which can be used to study different intracortical excitatory and inhibitory neuronal circuits in the intact human being. In the primary motor cortex, there are essentially three different TMS measures of inhibitory neuronal circuits as determined by paired-pulse TMS: short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), long-interval intracortical inhibition (LICI) and interhemispheric inhibition (IHI). It was hypothesized that SICI is a GABAA receptor mediated inhibition (Ilic et al., 2002) whereas LICI and IHI are mediated by GABAB receptors (Daskalakis et al., 2002; McDonnell et al., 2006). Additionally, it was shown that these inhibitory circuits interact negatively, possible due to presynaptic GABAB receptor mediated inhibition (Sanger et al., 2001; Daskalakis et al., 2002). Which neuronal populations exactly underlie SICI, LICI and IHI, is not completely clear and by which mechanism these inhibitory circuits interact has never been tested pharmacologically so far. Thus, the effects of a single oral dose of Diazepam (DZP), a specific positive allosteric modulator at the GABAA receptor, and of Baclofen (BAC), a specific GABAB receptor agonist, on SICI, LICI and IHI as well as their interactions were tested here in a randomized, placebo controlled, double-blinded crossover study. SICI significantly increased after intake of DZP whereas BAC did not change SICI. Conversely, LICI significantly increased after intake of BAC but did not change after intake of DZP. IHI showed only a trend towards a decrease after intake of DZP but no change after intake of BAC. The interactions IHI-SICI, LICI-IHI and LICI-SICI were all negative at baseline. SICI and IHI were partially suppressed in the presence of IHI and LICI, respectively, and SICI in the presence of LICI was almost completely blocked. BAC did not change any of these interactions, whereas DZP significantly increased SICI in the presence of LICI. This study is the first to examine by means of pharmacological testing the complex interactions between different inhibitory circuits in the human motor cortex. The effects of DZP and BAC on SICI and LICI confirmed the notion that SICI is a GABAA receptor mediated intracortical inhibition whereas LICI depends on GABAB receptor mediated neurotransmission. The pharmacology of IHI at short interstimulus intervals of < 20 ms (12 ms in this study) remains still inconclusive and warrants further investigation. Findings further suggest that SICI, LICI and IHI represent three different inhibitory neuronal circuits which can be tested non-invasively by means of paired-pulse TMS. Furthermore, the data support the idea that the negative interactions IHI-SICI, LICI-IHI and LICI-SICI are most likely due to presynaptic GABAB receptor mediated autoinhibition.
Colorectal cancer is one of the most cause of cancer and death in Western societies. Recently, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs), which regulate transcription through modification of chromatin structure, received considerable interest on the ground of they ability to stop the growth and induce cell death in colon cancer tumours, representing a promising transcriptional cancer therapy. This kind of cancer initiates with an activating mutation in the Wnt cascade, allowing the nuclear import of ß-catenin binding to LEF/TCF. This induces the overexpression of growthpromoting oncogenes affecting the cell cycle arrest, lineage-specific cell differentiation and apoptosis processes. In addition, ß-catenin also participates in cell-cell adhesion via interactions with E-cadherin, which can be repressed by families of transcription factors Snail and ZEB. This, and gain of vimentin has been closely correlated with local invasion and metastasis since they avoid the induction of apoptosis through the loss of cell anchorage, a phenomenon called anoikis. In this process the inactivation of the kinases Src an FAK provoking disruption of focal adhesion complexes through is involved. LAQ824 is a HDAC inhibitor derivative of hydroxamic acid, which present antitumor effect in colon and other cancer cells. The aim of this study is to analyse the effect of LAQ824 in cell proliferation, apoptosis, motility and tumour invasion in a colon carcinoma model based on the adenoma-carcinoma sequence descrying trough which pathways LAQ824 is able to cause these effects. Here I demonstrate for the first time that a HDAC inhibitor, LAQ824, induces detachmentinduced cell death of colon cancer cell lines HCT116 and HT-29, a phenomenon called anoikis, in a caspase-dependent and p53-independent manner. In this process the component of the Wnt signalling pathway ß-catenin is involved. Furthermore LAQ824 upregulates the adhesion molecule E-cadherin expression in these cell lines independently of its repressor Snail, but probably mediated by the repressor ZEB. In addition LAQ824-induced anoikis is caused by disruption of focal adhesion complexes through inhibition of the activity of the kinases FAK and Src inhibiting cell motility indicating a strong antimetastatic potential for LAQ824.
Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) is involved in a variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes, but its role in fever is poorly understood and the data obtained so far are rather controversial. Here we investigated the effects of central PGD2 delivery and of systemic prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS) or cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition on core body temperature (TC) and on prostaglandin levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of rats. Both PGE2 and PGD2 were detectable in CSF samples from control rats (6.2 ± 1.1 and 17.3 ± 3.1 pg/ml, respectively). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection (50 μg i.p.) induced fever during the 5-hour observation period. Five hours after LPS injection, the levels of PGE2 and PGD2 were increased in the CSF about 90-fold (541.0 ± 47.5 pg/ml) and 5-fold (95.4 ± 23.1 pg/ml), respectively. Administration of PGD2 (50 - 500 ng) into the cisterna magna (i.c.m) evoked a delayed fever response in a dose-dependent manner that was accompanied by increased levels of PGE2 in the CSF. RT-PCR analyses revealed that the increased levels of PGE2 after PGD2 administration were not caused by up-regulation of COX-2 or microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1) in the hypothalamus. Interestingly, i.c.m. pretreatment of animals with PGD2 considerably sustained the pyrogenic effects of i.c.m. administered PGE2. Pretreatment with a novel PGDS inhibitor, EDJ300520 (10 – 40 mg/kg p.o.), 1 h prior to the LPS injection impaired the LPS-induced increase of both PGD2 and PGE2 in the CSF and inhibited the fever response. In contrast, administration of EDJ300520 3 h after LPS injection did not ameliorate the LPS-induced fever. Accordingly, the concentration of PGE2 in the CSF was not decreased after EDJ300520 treatment. However, the CSF levels of PGD2 were reduced after administration of a high dose of EDJ300520 (40 mg/kg). We also investigated the effects of antipyretic drugs on the CSF levels of PGE2 and PGD2 during LPS-induced fever. Four antipyretic drugs with different mechanisms of action were used, including ibuprofen (5 - 20 mg/kg), celecoxib (10 - 50 mg/kg), SC560 5 - 20 mg/kg), and paracetamol (50 - 150 mg/kg). Each drug was used in three different doses and was orally administered 3 h after the LPS injection. All drugs were capable to attenuate the LPS-induced fever. The decrease of TC paralleled the reduction of PGE2 levels in the CSF. Of note, there was a tendency to reduced PGD2 levels in the CSF after treatment with the antipyretic drugs. However, only SC560 and the high dose of celecoxib (50 mg/kg) reduced the PGD2 levels significantly. In summary, our experiments underscore the pivotal role of PGE2 as the principal downstream mediator of fever. Moreover, we demonstrate that PGD2 is also involved in the mechanisms underlying fever. Our data suggest that PGD2 exerts an indirect pyrogenic effect by modulating the availability of PGE2 in the CSF. Additional studies are needed to explore the exact mechanism by
1. Halobacillus halophilus akkumuliert zum Ausgleich geringer, extrazellulärer Wasserpotentiale kompatible Solute. Bei Anzuchten in Gegenwart von 0,4 – 1,5 M NaCl wurden Glutamin und Glutamat als die dominierenden kompatiblen Solute identifiziert, während zwischen 2,0 und 3,0 M NaCl Prolin das dominierende Solut darstellt. Außerdem wurde Ectoin als zweites kompatibles Solut gefunden, das spezifisch bei hohen Salzgehalten akumuliert wird. Die Konzentrationen während der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase war jedoch um den Faktor 6 – 7 geringer im Vergleich zu Prolin. 2. Aus Wachstumsexperimenten in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Anionen war bekannt, dass Glutamat, im Gegensatz zu Gluconat und Nitrat, in der Lage ist, das Wachstum von H. halophilus auch in Abwesenheit von Chlorid zu ermöglichen. Um der Frage nachzugehen, ob die wachstumsfördernde Wirkung von unphysiologisch hohen Glutamat-Konzentrationen im Medium auf die Verwendung von Glutamat als kompatiblem Solut in den Zellen zurückzuführen ist, wurden Gesamtsolutepools von Chlorid-, Nitrat-, Gluconat- und Glutamat-gezogenen Zellen gemessen. In NaCl-gezogenen Zellen zeigte sich Glutamat als dominantes Solut, während Prolin und Glutamin einen geringeren Teil am Gesamtpool ausmachten. In Nitrat-gezogenen Zellen betrug der Gesamtpool nur noch 83% und in Gluconat-gezogenen Zellen nur noch 27% im Vergleich zu Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen. Zellen, die mit Glutamat gezogen wurden, zeigten jedoch eine Gesamtkonzentration an Soluten, die ca. 100% über dem Vergleichswert aus Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen lag. Die Konzentration an Glutamin in den Zellen stieg dabei um 168%, die Konzentration an Glutamat sogar um 299%. Die Prolinkonzentration verringerte sich um 32%. Diese Daten belegen, dass der wachstumsstimulierende Effekt von Glutamat auf die Verwendung als kompatibles Solut zurückzuführen ist. 3. Zur Untersuchung der molekularen Grundlage der Salzadaptation sowie der Abhängigkeit von Chlorid in H. halophilus wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Gruppe von Prof. D. Oesterhelt (MPI für Biochemie, Martinsried) die Sequenzierung des Genoms begonnen. Das Projekt ist zur Zeit noch nicht abgeschlossen und befindet sich in der „Lückenschluß-Phase“. Die bisherigen Sequenzdaten konnten dennoch für die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen Untersuchungen herangezogen werden. Das Genom besitzt eine Größe von ca. 4,1 Mbp mit einem ungefähren GC-Gehalt von 40%. Außerdem wurden 2 Plasmide identifiziert mit einer Größe von 16047 und 3329 bp. 4. Die Schlüsselgene bekannter Biosynthesewege für Glutamin und Glutamat konnten identifiziert werden. Darunter befinden sich zwei Isogene für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase (gdh1 und gdh2), ein Gen für die große Untereinheit einer Glutamatsynthase (gltA), zwei Gene für die kleine Untereinheit einer Glutamat-Synthase (gltB1 und gltB2) und zwei Isogene für eine Glutaminsynthetase (glnA1 und glnA2). glnA1 befindet sich in einem Cluster zusammen mit einem Gen, das für einen Regulator kodiert (glnR), wie er auch aus B. subtilis bekannt ist. Über reverse Transkription von mRNA und anschließender PCR-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl gltA/gltB1 als auch glnA1/glnR in einem Operon organisiert sind. 5. Wurde die Transkriptmenge der in Punkt 4 erwähnten Biosynthesegene in Zellen quantifiziert, die in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Salzkonzentrationen (0,4 – 3,0 M NaCl) gezogen wurden, so zeigte sich keine Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration für die Gene gltA, glnA1 und gdh1. Über die Transkriptmengen von gdh2 ließ sich keine abschließende Aussage treffen, da die gefundenen Transkriptmengen sehr gering waren und daher zu sehr großen Varianzen bei der Quantifizierung führten. Eine klare Abhängigkeit der Transkriptmenge von der im Medium zugesetzten Salzkonzentration konnte für glnA2 gezeigt werden. Die glnA2 mRNA-Menge stieg dabei mit steigender Salzkonzentration an und erreichte bei 1,5 – 2.0 M NaCl ein Maximum. Bei diesen Salzkonzentrationen war die Menge an mRNA ca. 4 mal höher als der Vergleichswert bei 0,4 M NaCl. Bei höhern Salzkonzentrationen sank die Menge an Transkript wieder leicht und war dann ca. nur noch 3 mal so hoch wie bei 0,4 M NaCl. 6. Die zelluläre Konzentration der glnA2-Transkripte in Abhängigkeit unterschiedlicher Anionen im Anzuchtmedium wurde untersucht. Die Quantifizierung der glnA2–mRNA ergab eine 2 mal höhere Transkriptmenge in Gegenwart von Chlorid verglichen mit Nitrat oder Gluconat. 7. Es wurde nach Enzymaktivitäten der bekannten Schlüsselenzyme im Glutamat und Glutamin-Biosyntheseweg gesucht. Eine Glutamatdehydrogenase und eine Glutamatsynthase – Aktivität konnte nicht oder nur in vernachlässigbarem Maße nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu konnt eine Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität eindeutig belegt werden. Diese Aktivität erwies sich abhängig von der Art und der Konzentration des angebotenen Anions im Medium. Maximale Aktivitäten wurden mit NaCl in einer Konzentration von 2,5 – 3,0 M erreicht. Interessanterweise erwies sich die Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität auch abhängig von der Art des im Testpuffers verwendeten Anions. Hier zeigte sich eine deutliche Stimulierung der Aktivität durch das Anion Chlorid. [Die für diesen Punkt zugrunde liegenden Daten wurden im Rahmen einer von mir mitbetreuten Diplomarbeit von Jasmin F. Sydow erhoben und sind aus Gründen der vollständigen Darstellung des Projektverlaufes mitaufgeführt!] 8. Wie im Punkt 1 dargelegt, wird Prolin vor allem bei hohen Salzkonzentrationen in H. halophilus - Zellen akkumuliert. Neben der Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration wurde außerdem die Abhängigkeit von der Wachstumsphase untersucht. Die Analyse der Prolinkonzentrationen während verschiedener Wachstumsphasen in Kulturen, die bei 1,0 bzw. 2,5 M NaCl angezogen wurden, zeigte, (i) dass die Prolinkonzentration während der frühen exponentiellen Phase ca. 2,5-fach erhöht war im Vergleich zu Niedrigsalz-Zellen, (ii) dass die Prolinkonzentration beim Übergang von der frühen in die späte exponentielle Phase dramatisch abnahm (um 64% bei 2,5 M NaCl) und dass (iii) in der stationären Phase Prolin praktisch nicht mehr nachzuweisen war. 9. Die Biosynthesegene für die Herstellung von Prolin aus Glutamat konnten im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert werden. Es handelt sich dabei um ein Cluster von 3 Genen, die für eine putative Pyrrolin-5-carboxylatreductase (proH), eine Glutamat-5-kinase (proJ), und eine Glutamat-5-semialdehyd-dehydrogenase (proA) kodieren. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 10. Eine Quantifizierung der Transkriptmengen der Biosynthesegene proH, proJ und proA mittels quantitativer PCR in Zellen, die bei unterschiedlichen NaCl-Konzentrationen gezogen wurden, zeigte einen deutlichen Zusammenhang zwischen der Salinität des Mediums und der Menge an Transkript. Diese war umso höher, je höher die Salinität des Mediums war. Die maximale Transkriptmenge (6-fach) wurde bei einer Salzkonzentration von 2,5 M NaCl erreicht. Bei noch höherer Salzkonzentration sank die Transkriptmenge auf die ca. 5-fache Menge des Kontrollwertes ab. 11. Um die Regulation und Dynamik der Osmoregulation unabhängig vom Wachstum untersuchen zu können, wurde ein Zellsuspensions-System für H. halophilus etabliert, bei dem eine konzentrierte Zellsuspension direkt von geringen auf hohe Salzkonzentrationen überführt wurde und bei dem die Prozesse der Transkription, Translation und Solut-Biosynthese erhalten blieben. Beispielhaft wurde dieses System an der Produktion von Prolin nach einem Salzschock von 0,8 auf 2,0 M NaCl getestet. Es zeigte sich bei der Analyse, dass sich die Transkriptmengen unmittelbar nach dem Salzschock deutlich erhöhten und bereits nach 1,5 Stunden ein Maximum erreicht wurde. Verglichen mit dem Wert zu Beginn des Versuches waren die Transkriptmengen ca. 13-fach erhöht, sanken im weiteren Verlauf jedoch wieder ab und blieben bei einer 4-fachen Transkriptmenge konstant. Mit der Erhöhung der Transkriptmenge ging auch eine Erhöhung der Prolinkonzentration einher, die ein Maximum von ca. 6 μmol/mg Protein nach 6 Stunden erreichte. Auch diese Konzentration verringerte sich im weiteren Verlauf wieder und erreichte nach 20 Stunden den Ausgangswert. 12. Um den Einfluß diverser Anionen bzw. Osmolyte im Medium auf die Produktion von Prolin zu untersuchen, wurden Zellsuspensionen von H. halophilus einer Erhöhung der Osmolarität von 0,8 M auf 2,0 M unterzogen. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass die maximale Akkumulation von Prolin in Anwesenheit von Chlorid am höchsten war. Nitrat und Glutamat führten zu ähnlichen, aber leicht geringeren maximalen Konzentrationen (92 bzw. 83% des Chloridwertes). Gluconat führte noch zu einer Akkumulation von ca. 51%, während die anderen Osmolyte zu keiner Akkumulation führten. Eine Analyse der Transkriptmengen zeigte jedoch ein völlig anderes Bild. Während Chlorid, Nitrat und Gluconat zu vergleichbaren Anstiegen der Transkripmengen führten, war die maximale Transkriptmenge der Glutamatinkubierten Zellen 3-9 mal höher als in Vergleichszellen mit Chlorid. In anschließenden Titrationsexperimenten mit verschiedenen Glutamatkonzentrationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine minimale Konzentration von 0,2 M Glutamat ausreichend ist, um eine 90-fache Steigerung der Transkriptmenge herbeizuführen. 13. Als Antwort auf Hochsalz-Bedingungen akkumuliert H. halophilus neben Prolin auch Ectoin. Die Ectoinkonzentration bei 2,5 M NaCl war ca. 2-3 mal höher als in Zellen, die bei 1,0 M gezogen wurden. Die Bestimmung der intrazellulären Ectoin-Konzentrationen während des Wachstums zeigte außerdem, dass die Produktion von Ectoin wachstumsphasenabhängig ist. Die Konzentration in der stationären Phase war ca. 5-fach höher als in der exponentiellen Phase. Die Entwicklung der Ectoin- Konzentration verhielt sich somit reziprok zur Entwicklung der Prolin-Konzentration während des Wachstums. 14. Es wurde ein Cluster von drei Genen im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert, deren Genprodukte die Biosynthese von Ectoin aus Aspartatsemialdehyd katalysieren. ectA kodiert dabei für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-Acetyltransferase, ectB für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-2-oxoglutarat-Transaminase und ectC für eine putative Ectoin-Synthase. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 15. Die Transkription der ect-Gene war abhängig von der Salinität des Mediums. Ab 2,0 M stieg die Menge an RNA um das 10-fache an und erreichte bei 3,0 M ein Maximum mit der 23,5-fachen Menge. 16. Nach einem osmotischen Schock stieg die Konzentration an ect-mRNA signifikant und erreichte ein Maximum nach 3 - 4 Stunden. Das Maximum wurde somit 1,5 – 2,5 Stunden später erreicht als bei anderen Genen der Solute-Biosynthese wie etwa gdh1, das für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase, glnA2, das für eine Glutamin-Synthetase oder proH, das für eine Pyrrolin-5-Carboxylase kodiert. Die maximal erreichten Wert lagen 13-fach (ectA), 6,5-fach (ectB) und 3-fach (ectC) über dem Wert vor dem Salzschock. Gegen EctC wurden polyklonale Antikörper generiert. Western-Blot Analysen mit diesem Antikörper zeigten, dass die EctC-Menge nach 4 Stunden um das 2,5-fache stieg, dann aber wieder abfiel auf das 1,6 – 1,7-fache des Ausgangswertes. Der Rückgang an EctC fand keine Entsprechung in der gemessenen Ectoin-Konzentration, welche über einen Zeitraum von 18 Stunden kontinuierlich anstieg. Die maximale Konzentration nach 18 Stunden betrug das ca. 6,3-fache des Ausgangswertes. 17. Wurden H. halophilus Zellen mit anderen Osmolyten außer NaCl geschockt, so ergab sich folgendes Bild der Regulation der Ectoin-Biosynthese: (i) die Transkription der ect-Gene zeigte keine Chlorid-abhängige Regulation. Die maximale Transkriptmenge wurde in Gegenwart von Nitrat erreicht, wohingegen Gluconat zu vergleichbachen mRNA-Mengen führte wie Chlorid. Glutamat führte nur zu schwacher Stimulierung der Transkription. (ii) auf Ebene der Proteinmenge war zu sehen, dass die Menge an EctC nach osmotischem Schock vergleichbar war in Zellen, die mit Chlorid oder Nitrat inkubiert wurden. Gluconat führte nur zu einer 40%-igen Zunahme während andere Osmolyte nahezu wirkungslos auf die Menge an EctC blieben. (iii) die höchste Akkumulation an Ectoin nach einer plötzlichen Erhöhung der Osmolarität wurde erreicht mit Chlorid (6-fache Zunahme) gefolgt von Nitrat (5,6-fache Zunahme). Gluconat führte lediglich zu einer 3,3-fachen und Glutamat nur noch zu einer 2-fachen Steigerung der Ectoinkonzentration. Glutamat hat somit ähnliche Effekte wie Tartrat, Saccharose oder Sulfat. Succinat führte zu keiner Akkumulation und Glycin sogar zu einer deutlichen Abnahme. Die Produktion von Ectoin ist somit hauptsächlich abhängig vom Anion/Osmolyt und nur untergeordnet von der Osmolarität.
Quantum chromodynamics predicts the existence of a phase transition from hadronic to quark-gluon matter when temperature and pressure are sufficiently high. Colliding heavy nuclei at ultra-relativistic speeds allows to deposit large amounts of energy in a small volume of space, and is the only available experimental mean to produce the extreme conditions necessary to obtain the deconfined state. Numerous models and ideas were developed in the last decades to study heavy ion physics and understand the properties of extremely heated and compressed nuclear matter. With the ever increasing energy available in the center of mass frame (and thus number of particles produced) and the development of large acceptance detectors, it has become possible to study the fluctuations of physical quantities on an event-by-event basis, and access thermodynamical properties not present in particle spectra. The characteristics of the highly excited matter produced, e.g. thermalization, effect of resonance decay. . . can be investigated by fluctuation analyses. In fact, fluctuations are good indicators for a phase transition and a plethora of fluctuation probes have been proposed to pin down the existence and the properties of the QGP. We study various fluctuation quantities within the Ultra-relativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics UrQMD and the quantum Molecular Dynamics qMD models. UrQMD is based on hadron and string degrees of freedom and allows to disentangle purely hadronic effects. In contrast, the qMD model includes an explicit transition from quark to hadronic matter and can serve to test adequate probes of the initial QGP state. We show that the qMD model can reasonably reproduce various experimental particles rapidity distributions and transverse mass spectra in wide energy range. Within the frame of the dynamical recombination procedure used in qMD, we study the enhancement of protons over pions (p/π) ratio in the intermediate pt range (1.5 < pt < 2.5). We show that qMD can reproduce the large p/π ≈ 1 observed experimentally at RHIC energies at hadronization. However, the subsequent decay of resonances makes the ratio fall to values incompatible with experimental data. We thus conclude that resonance decay might have a drastic influence on this observable in the quark recombination picture. Charged particles multiplicity fluctuations measured at SPS by the NA49 collaboration are enhanced in midperipheral events for Pb+Pb collisions at Elab = 160 AGeV. This feature is not reproduce by hadron-string transport approaches, which show a flat centrality dependence, within the proper experimental acceptance and with the proper centrality selection procedure. However, we show that the behavior of multiplicity fluctuations in transport codes is similar to the experimental result in full 4π acceptance. We identify the centrality selection procedure as the reason for the enhanced particle multiplicity fluctuations in midperipheral reactions and argue that it can be used to distinguish between different scenarios of particle productions. We show that experimental data might indicate a strong mixing of projectile and target related production sources. Strangeness over entropy K/π and baryon number over entropy p/π ratio fluctuations have been measured by the NA49 experiment in the SPS energy range, from Elab = 20 AGeV up to Elab = 160 AGeV. We investigate the sensitivity of this observable to kinematical cuts and discuss the influence of resonance decay. We find the dynamical p/π ratio fluctuations to increase with beam energy, in agreement with the measured data points. On the contrary, the dynamical K/π ratio fluctuations are essential flat as a function of centrality and depend only weakly on the kinematical cuts applied. Our results are in line with the simulations performed earlier by the NA49 collaboration in their detector acceptance filter. Finally, we focus on the correlations and fluctuations of conserved charges. It was proposed that these fluctuations are sensitive to the fractional charge carried by the quarks in the initial QGP stage and survive the whole course of heavy ion reactions. A crucial point is the influence of hadronization that may relax the initial QGP fluctuation/correlation signals to their hadronic values. We use the quark Molecular Dynamics qMD model to disentangle the effect of recombination-hadronization on charged particles ratio fluctuations, charge transfer fluctuations, baryon number-strangeness correlation coefficient and various ratios of susceptibilities (i.e. correlations over fluctuations). We find that the dynamical recombination procedure implemented in the qMD model destroys all studied initial QGP fluctuations and correlations and might ex- plain why no signal of a phase transition based on event-by-event fluctuations was found in the experimental data until now.
The chemiosmotic theory suggested by Peter Mitchell (Mitchell, 1961, Nature 191:144-148; see Mitchell, 1979, Science 206:1148-1159 for review) postulated that the energy released upon the oxidation of electron donor substrates is transiently stored as electrochemical proton potential, delta-p across energy-transducing membranes, which acts then as the driving force for the ATP synthesis. Membrane protein complexes can both generate and utilise a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential, either by transmembrane proton transfer or by transmembrane electron transfer coupled to protolytic reactions on opposite sides of the membrane. The dihaem-containing membrane protein complex quinol:fumarate reductase (QFR) from the anaerobic epsilon-proteobacterium Wolinella succinogenes apparently combines both of these mechanisms (Haas et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:13949-13961; Lancaster et al, 2005, PNAS 102:18860–18865; Mileni et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:16718-16728; Madej et al, 2006, EMBO J 25:4963-4970). QFR is the terminal enzyme of anaerobic fumarate respiration that allows bacteria to use fumarate as the terminal electron acceptor (Kröger, 1978, Biochim Biophys Acta 505:129-45; Lancaster, 2004, In: Respiration in Archaea and Bacteria Volume 1:57-85). QFR couples the two-electron reduction of fumarate to succinate to the two-electron oxidation of quinol to quinone. QFR contains two haem b groups bound by the transmembrane subunit C, which are termed the ‘proximal haem’, bP, and the ‘distal haem’, bD, according to the relative proximity to the hydrophilic subunits A and B (Lancaster et al, 1999, Nature 402:377-85). The two-electron transfer via the two haem groups has been proposed (Lancaster, 2002, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1565:215-231) and demonstrated (Madej et al, 2006, EMBO J 25:4963-4970) to be coupled to a compensatory, parallel transfer of two protons via a transmembrane proton transfer pathway. The two most prominent constituents of the proposed pathway were suggested to be the haem bD ring C propionate and the side chain of amino-acid residue Glu C180, after which the proton transfer pathway was named the ‘E-pathway’ (Lancaster, 2002, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 565:215-231). The essential role of Glu C180 was supported by site-directed mutagenesis and structural and functional characterization of the enzyme E180Q, where the Glu C180 was replaced with a Gln residue (Lancaster et al, 2005, PNAS 102:18860–18865). Moreover, multiconformer continuum electrostatics (MCCE) calculations (Haas and Lancaster 2004, Biophys J 87:4298-4315) and Fouriertransformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy experiments (Haas et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:13949-13961) indicated the Glu C180 side chain to undergo a combination of a conformational change and protonation upon haem reduction. The contribution of haem bD propionate is less clear, however, a combination of 13C labelling of the haem propionates with redox-induced FTIR experiments (Mileni et al, 2005, Biochemistry 44:16718-16728) and MCCE calculations (Haas and Lancaster, 2004, Biophys J 87:4298-4315) support a change in protonation, possibly accompanied by a change in environment upon haem reduction. These experiments and their results strongly support the existence of the ‘E-pathway’ which is transiently open during the reduction of the haem groups and blocked in the oxidized state of the enzyme (Lancaster, 2002b, Biochim Biophys Acta 1565:215-231). All available crystal structures of the QFR, however, are those of the oxidized enzyme. Therefore, it is advantageous to perform simulations of various redox states of the enzyme to determine for instance, how the side-chain of Glu C180 and haem bD ring C propionate behave upon changes of the redox states of the haem groups and why is the ‘E-pathway’ blocked in the oxidized state of the enzyme. Although the distal haem ring C propionate and Glu C180 were identified as the most prominent components of the proton transfer pathway, it was not clear, on the basis of the structure, how proton transfer could occur between them. In addition, two constituents are not enough to span the membrane region and the additional participants in the proton transfer pathway must be identified. Since an atomistic investigation of proton transfer in this system is not yet possible experimentally, I used available theoretical methods such as classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulation (Alder and Wainwright, 1959, J Phys Chem 31:459-466; McCammon et al, 1977, Nature 267:585-590) and Q-HOP molecular dynamics (Q-HOP MD) simulation (Lill and Helms, 2001, J Chem Phys 115:7993-8005) to investigate the postulated mechanism of electron coupled proton transfer in QFR. MD simulations allowed us to move away from static difference pictures obtained from FTIR experiments and MCCE calculations. The advantage of the MD simulations over the experiments and the simulations performed so far is that the time-dependent properties could now be analyzed. The behaviour of various residues and their side-chains and any environmental changes may be directly observed during MD simulations. Although classical MD simulations cannot be used to study proton transfer reactions, they can provide information on formation of configurations that would allow either direct proton transfer between donor and acceptor residues or indirect proton transfer mediated by water molecules. To avoid the static protonation of residues which is inherent in classical MD simulations, Q-HOP MD simulations were performed which explicitly describe proton transfer reactions by allowing the change of the protonation state of residues ‘on the fly’. The structures obtained after classical molecular dynamics simulations ....
The thesis is devoted to the study of the Antarctic polar vortex, mainly by analyzing data collected during APE-GAIA (1999) and ASHOE (1994) campaigns and recorded by the ADEOS satellite (1996-1997), and to improvement of the chromato-graphic processing schemes. A general introduction and overview of the campaigns and instruments relevant to the present work are given in Chapters 1 and 2. A relatively large part of the thesis (Chapters 3-5) is on improvement of the analysis of raw chromatographic data recorded during in-flight measurements of the trace gases. A Gaussian non-straight-base-line method, i.e. the Gaussian processing scheme (Chapter 3), is developed for better evaluation of the chromatographic peak size. Furthermore, a statistical cross-correlation method (Chapter 5) based on statistical behaviour of the whole chromatogram series fNchrg recorded, e.g., during a research flight or laboratory calibration, is developed and applied to measure the low-concentration trace gases. As demonstrated for HAGAR's chromatograms (HAGAR - High Altitude Gas Analyzer), the combination of the Gaussian fitting scheme for individual chromatograms and the statistical cross-correlation method for a series of subsequent chromatograms considerably improves and stabilizes quantitative analysis of in-flight chromatographic data. In this case, the detection accuracy of weak and noisy chromatographic signals can be improved by up to 40 %. A particular attention is paid to the in-flight two-standard calibration method. For this method, a special procedure, that allows to evaluate and effectively remove a weak background chromatographic signal associated with residual molecules in the carrier gas N2, is proposed and coded (Chapter 4). The developed approaches and methods are completely automized and, therefore, can be used for processing of in-flight chromatograms of recent and future field campaigns. The main part of the thesis (Chapters 6-8) deals with a two-dimensional quasi-Lagrangian coordinate system ... , based on a long-lived stratospheric trace gas i, and its systematic use for i = N2O in order to describe the structure of a well-developed Antarctic polar vortex, linearization and compactization of the tracer-tracer correlations in the polar vortex core (i.e. the stratospheric dynamics in this area), and the differential ozone losses in the Antarctic polar vortex area. In the coordinate system ... (...-method, Chapter 6), which refers to a well-developed polar vortex, the mixing ratio Âi is the vertical coordinate and ... = .... i is the reference profile in the vortex core) is the meridional coordinate. The quasi-Lagrangian coordinates ... are much more long-lived comparing with the standard quasi-isentropic coordinates, potential temperature ... and equivalent latitude ..e, do not require explicit reference to geographic space, and therefore well-suited for studying the dynamics of the Antarctic polar vortex and the relevant ozone loss processes. By using the introduced coordinate system ... to analyze the well-developed Antarctic vortex investigated in the APE-GAIA campaign, it is shown, in concurrence with the conclusion of A. M. Lee et al. (2001), that the Antarctic vortex area can be described in terms of the well-mixed and well-isolated vortex core, relatively wide vortex boundary region and adjoining surf zone. In this case, the reference profile ... i , which is compact in a well-developed and isolated polar vortex core [J. B. Greenblatt et al. (2002)], can be found by combining airborne (and/or balloon) data with high-altitude satellite measurements. A criterion, which uses the local in-situ measurements of Âi = Âi(£) and attributes the inner vortex edge to a rapid change (±-step) in the meridional pro¯le of the mixing ratio..., is developed in Chapter 6 to determine the (Antarctic) inner vortex edge. In turn, the outer vortex edge of a well-developed Antarctic vortex is proposed to attribute to the position of a local maximum of ...H2O in the polar vortex area. For a well-developed Antarctic vortex, the ...-parametrization of tracer-tracer correlations allows to distinguish the tracer-tracer inter-relationships in the vortex core, vortex boundary region and surf zone (Chapter 7). This is clearly illustrated by analyzing the tracer-tracer relationships Âi ¡ ÂN2O obtained from the in-situ data of the APE-GAIA campaign for i = CFCl3 (CFC-11), CF2Cl2 (CFC-12), CBrClF2 (H-1211) and SF6. The solitary anomalous points in the ...CFC11 ¡ ÂN2O correlation, observed in the Antarctic vortex core during the APE-GAIA and ASHOE campaigns, are interpreted in terms of small-scale localized differential descent. As detailed in Chapter 8, the quasi-Lagrangian coordinate system fÂN2O; ¢ÂN2Og is an effective tool for evaluation of the differential ozone losses in the polar vortex area. With this purpose, a two-parametric reference function ...O3 = F(...), which characterizes the unperturbed O3 distribution in the early winter polar vortex area, is introduced to separate and quantify in terms of the meridional coordinate ...2O the differential ozone losses in the vortex core and vortex boundary region. The method is applied to analyze the ozone depletion in the Antarctic stratosphere during the austral spring 1999 (APE-GAIA campaign). In Chapter 9, the main results of the thesis are summarized.
The ABC protein ABCE1, also called HP68 or RNase L inhibitor (RLI), is one of the most conserved proteins in evolution. It is universally expressed in eukaryotes and archaea, where ABCE1 is essential for life. ABCE1 plays a crucial role in translation initiation and ribosome biogenesis, however, the molecular mechanism of ABCE1 remains unclear. In addition to two ABC ATPase domains, ABCE1 contains a unique N-terminal region with eight conserved cysteines predicted to coordinate iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. To analyze the function of ABCE1, the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeote Sulfolobus solfataricus was chosen as a model system. S. solfataricus ABCE1 was overexpressed homologously in S. solfataricus and heterologously in E. coli. Noteworthy, for tagged-protein production in S. solfataricus a novel expression system based on a virus shuttle vector was established. This is the first example for a successful overexpression and purification of isolated full-length ABCE1. For the first time it was shown that ABCE1 indeed bears biochemical properties of an ABC protein even though it has unique features. Remarkably, the nucleotide binding domains (NBDs) of ABCE1 bound ATP and AMP, but were functionally non-equivalent in ATP hydrolysis. Mutations of conserved residues in the second NBD led to a hyperactive ATPase, which implies an intramolecular mechanism of dimer formation. Truncation of the Fe-S cluster domains did not influence ATPase activity. The Fe-S clusters of ABCE1 were analyzed by biophysical and biochemical methods. As presented in this study, ABCE1 harbors two essential diamagnetic [4Fe-4S]2+ clusters, one ferredoxin-like cluster formed by cysteines at position 4/5/6/7 and one unique ABCE1 cluster formed by cysteines at position 1/2/3/8. ABCE1 was found to be associated with RNA after purification from S. solfataricus and bound ribosomal RNA in vitro. In addition, ABCE1 showed homo-oligomerization and appeared to form a hexameric complex of ~440 kDa, which was RNase sensitive. Archaeal ABCE1 associated with ribosomes, however, the unique Fe-S clusters of ABCE1 were not required for this interaction. Although archaeal ABCE1 assembled with ribosomes and ribosomal RNA, ABCE1 proved not to be essential for translation in S. solfataricus and did not interact with archaeal initiation factors. Nevertheless, the ABCE1 gene is one of the few genes conserved between archaea and eukaryotes and fulfills a universal task, which needs further characterization.
21 Hsfs belonging to classes A, B and C were identified in Arabidopsis following the sequencing of its genome. 1.) Cloning of full length and CTD chimeric constructs followed by transient reporter assays in tobacco protoplast using GUS fusion constructs of the promoters of Hsp17.4-CI, synthetic (HSE9) and APX2 showed Hsfs A1a, A1b, A1d, A1e, A2, A3 and A9 to be active. CTDs of Hsfs A7a, A7b and HsfC1 had activity but they showed poor DNA binding in reporter assays. Hsfs A1a, A1b, A1d, A1e, A2 and A3 were able to induce the expression of endogenous Hsps in tomato protoplasts. Interesting differences in promoter selectivity were observed for several Hsfs. 2.) RT-PCR and microarray analysis showed the Hsfs to be differentially expressed depending on tissue, abiotic and biotic stress, hormone and developmental s ge. Interesting patterns of coexpressed Hsfs were observed under different stresses and developmental stages. 3.) HsfA1b was found to be active on the plasmid borne PHsf:GUS reporters of Hsfs A1d, A2, A4a, A7b and B4 when tested in tobacco mesophyll protoplasts. Hsfs A1d, A2, A4a, A7b and B4 when tested in tobacco mesophyll protplasts. HsfA2 was inactive on PHsfA:GUS. HsfB1 showed repression of endogenous activity on several PHsf:GUS reporter constructs. 4.) The transcriptional regulation under heat stress and promoter organization of HsfA2 and FtSH4 (a metalloprotease gene oriented in a head to head fashion with HsfA2 in the Arabidopsis genome, sharing a common promoter region) was studied. The transcripts of FtSH4 and HsfA2 coaccumulated under heat stress. HsfA1b was active on PHsfA2:GUS and PFtSH4:GUS. Hsf binding sites on the intergenic region were determined using promoter deletion constructs in tobacco and Arabidopsis protoplasts. A bidirectional regulation of HsfA2 and FtSH4 by HsfA1b was observed in tobacco protoplast. 5.) Microarray analysis of a HsfA2 T-DNA insertion line vs. wild type Col-0 under heat stress conditions led to identification of a subset of target genes to be severely affected in the absence of HsfA2. Apart from several Hsps (heat stressproteins) and APX2 (Ascorbate peroxidase 2, oxidative stress scavenger), several other unknown genes are affected. APX2 was the most severely affected among them. HsfA2 was able to induce the transcription from its target gene promoters in fusion to GUS in transient reporter assays in tobacco protoplast. The HSE cluster to which HsfA2 binds on the APX2 promoter was also mapped by the same technique. The direct binding of HsfA2 to the promoter of selected target genes in the Arabidopsis genome was also demonstrated by chromatin immunoprecipitation studies.
Two distinct mechanisms contribute to the development of blood vessels: vasculogenesis, which is the de novo formation of vascular structures from progenitor cells, and angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones.
Angiogenesis is a highly ordered and carefully regulated multi-step process, during which the precise spatio-temporal interaction between endothelial and mural cells, i.e. smooth muscle cells and pericytes, is prerequisite for the formation of a functional blood vessel. The crosstalk between these two latter cell ty pes is mediated indirectly by various
secreted growth factors, and directly through cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. The secretory epidermal growth factor-like protein 7 (EGFL7) has been implicated to
play an important role in the regulation of smooth muscle and endothelial cell recruitment and vascular tube formation. However, in-depth investigation of the underlying molecular mechanism has so far been hampered by the lack of functional recombinant EGFL7. In this study for the first time full length EGFL7 was successfully expressed as a His 6- tagged fusion protein from insect cells using the Baculovirus expression vector system. Recombinant EGFL7 was purified in a two-step protocol involving ion metal affinity chromatography and gel filtration. Furthermore, recombinant EGFL7 was
purified from human embryonic kidney EBN A 293 cells using a similar approach, allowing the production of high amounts of recombinant EGFL7 protein in its native state, with proper post-translational processing and full biological activity. Detailed analysis of the post-translational processing of recombinant EGFL7 and EGFL7-mutants revealed extensive proteolytic processing by protein convertases both at the N- and the C-terminus, the latter being prerequisite for EGFL7 secretion. Furthermore, secreted EGFL7 protein was shown to bind to the extracellular matrix and the responsible heparin-binding domain of EGFL7 was mapped to its N-terminal
portion. Purified recombinant EGFL7 protein was tested for its functionality using cell migration assays, cell proliferation studies and in vivo matrigel studies in mice. In the
modified Boyden chamber migration assay, recombinant EGFL7 proteins inhibited PDGF-BB-induced smooth muscle cell migration. Moreover, recombinant EGLF7 proteins strongly inhibited PDGF-BB-induced proliferation of smooth muscle cells, while it did not affect VEGF induced proliferation of endothelial cells. When applied in the in vivo matrigel plug assay, EGFL7 proteins induced a strong pro-angiogenic response, comparable with that of VEGF on an equimolar basis. Moreover, EGFL7 expression was strongly induced in endothelial cells in response to VEGF stimulation. These novel findings demonstrate the important function of EGFL7 in angiogenesis and are well in line with previous results. They demonstrate a cell specific action of EGFL7 on the different cell types involved in vessel formation, which is a prerequisite for a regulatory function in cell-to-cell crosstalk. Based on the results described here, the following model can be proposed: VEGF, a known strong initiator of angiogenesis, induces endothelial cell proliferation and migration, allowing the
escape from the comparatively rigid structure of a functional vessel to form an angiogenic sprout. At the same time VEGF induces the expression of EGFL7 in endothelial cells. EGFL7 is expressed, proc essed and secreted from these cells. While EGFL7 has no known effect on endothelial cells, it inhibits smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, providing a mechanism to prevent pre-mature stabilization of the forming vessel. The availability of purified recombinant EGFL7 will be helpful in the detailed characterization of the underlying molecular mechanism of EGFL7 action, including the identification of the putative EGFL7 receptor, and will allow - together with knock-out experiments in mice - the exploration of the additional biological functions of EGFL7. Moreover, considering the strong pro-angiogenic effect of EGFL7 in vivo, it would be also of a great therapeutic interest to investigate its role in the development of tumor vasculature. The insights into these molecular mechanisms might provide a novel approach for the development of anti tumor therapies.
Analysis of coding principles in the olfactory system and their application in cheminformatics
(2007)
Unser Geruchssinn vermittelt uns die Wahrnehmung der chemischen Welt. Im Laufe der Evolution haben sich in unserem olfaktorischen System Mechanismen entwickelt, die wahrscheinlich optimal auf die Erfüllung dieser Aufgabe angepasst sind. Die Analyse dieser Verarbeitungsstrategien verspricht Einblicke in effiziente Algorithmen für die Kodierung und Verarbeitung chemischer Information, deren Entwicklung und Anwendung dem Kern der Chemieinformatik entspricht. In dieser Arbeit nähern wir uns der Entschlüsselung dieser Mechanismen durch die rechnerische Modellierung von funktionellen Einheiten des olfaktorischen Systems. Hierbei verfolgten wir einen interdisziplinären Ansatz, der die Gebiete der Chemie, der Neurobiologie und des maschinellen Lernens mit einbezieht.
Many tax-codes around the world allow for special taxable treatment of savings in retirement accounts. In particular, profits in retirement accounts are usually tax exempt which allow investors to increase an asset's return by holding it in such a retirement account. While the existing literature on asset location shows that risk-free bonds are usually the preferred asset to hold in a retirement account, we explain how the tax exemption of profits in retirement accounts affects private investors' asset allocation. We show that total final wealth can be decomposed into what the investor would have earned in a taxable account and what is due to the tax exemption of profits in the retirement account. The tax exemption of profits can thus be considered a tax-gift which is similar to an implicit bond holding. As this tax-gift's impact on total final wealth decreases over time, so does the investor's equity exposure. JEL Classification Codes: G11, H24
Cytochrome b561 (cyt b561) proteins are members of the recently identified eukaryotic ascorbate reducible protein family named CYBASC (CYtochrome B, ASCorbate reducible). CYBASC proteins are di-heme-b-containing membrane proteins that catalyze the transmembrane electron transfer from ascorbate. The function of the CYBASC proteins has been correlated with ascorbate recycling and/or iron facilitation uptake. Therefore, investigations on this family are of great interest as ascorbate is one of the most powerful antioxidants and iron is essential for cell survival both in animals and plants. As the amino acid sequence conservation of animal and plant CYBASC proteins is relatively high, all CYBASC members are proposed to share the same structural motifs. However, no three-dimensional structure of any representative member of the CYBASC family has been determined to date. In the Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) genome, two complete putative CYBASC open reading frames (ORFs), artb561-a and artb561-b were identified. In this thesis, these two A. thaliana CYBASC ORFs, encoding for Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B proteins respectively, were investigated and obtained main results are listed. 1. A. thaliana CYBASC proteins were heterologously produced in Pichia pastoris and Escherichia coli and purified by a single-step immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). To facilitate detection and purification, the recombinant A. thaliana CYBASC proteins were produced in both expression systems with the histidine affinity tag. Pure and stable preparations of the cytochromes were obtained via a single-step IMAC in sufficient amounts to perform biochemical characterizations. 2. Detergent solubilized recombinant Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B are dimers. As previously suggested for other CYBASC proteins, analytical gel filtration experiment suggested that both detergent solubilized cytochromes are dimers. 3. Spectroscopic features of Acytb561-B differed from those of previously described bovine chromaffin granule cyt b561. A distinctive feature of the first identified CYBASC protein, the cyt b561 from bovine chromaffin vesicles of adrenal medulla (Bcytb561-CG), is that its differential visible absorbance spectra (visible-spectra) revealed an asymmetric α-band with a maximum at 562 nm and a clear shoulder at 557 nm. This feature was recently used to discriminate CYBASC proteins from not-CYBASC proteins. However, in this thesis, it is shown for the first time that not all CYBASC proteins display in their reduced-minus-oxidized visible-spectra an asymmetric α- band and therefore, this feature can not be used as a discriminating CYBASC characteristic. 4. Ascorbate dependent reduction of the A. thaliana CYBASC proteins is inhibited by diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC). As previously reported for the Bcytb561-CG, the ascorbatedependent reduction of the A. thaliana CYBASC proteins was inhibited by DEPC treatment. In addition, the ‘ascorbate protectant’ effect against DEPC that was observed on the Bcytb561-CG was also observed on the Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B proteins. Furthermore, as the physiological electron donor of all CYBASC proteins is supposed to be ascorbate, ascorbate-affinity of Acytb561- A and Acytb561-B was monitored and was found to be in the same range of the one of the Bcytb561- CG. 5. A. thaliana CYBASC proteins are Fe3+-chelate reductases. Recently, the Fe3+-chelate reductase activity of various CYBASC proteins was presented. In this thesis, it is shown that also both A. thaliana CYBASC proteins reduced Fe3+-chelates such as Fe3+-EDTA and Fe3+-citrate. Consistently, heme potentiometric reductive-oxidative titration of purified Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B indicated that the midpoint potential of the two heme centres of both cytochromes was lower than the one of those Fe3+-chelates. The values of both heme centre potentials of Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B are also consistent with the observation that both cytochromes were only partially reducible by ascorbate and were fully reduced with the non-physiological reductant Na-dithionite. In summary, this work describes the heterologous production, purification and initial characterizations of two distinct CYBASC proteins from A. thaliana: Acytb561-A and Acytb561-B. Biochemical characterization of these cytochromes showed that the shape of the α-band in the differential spectra is not a discriminating factor for CYBASC proteins but it is likely the DEPC sensitivity and the Fe3+-chelate reductase activity. Establishment of a purification strategy to obtain sufficient amounts of monodispersed and stable A. thaliana CYBASC proteins has also enabled initial screening of three dimensional crystallization conditions which are a prerequisite for a deeper understanding of this new eukaryotic redox enzyme family.
Background: False aneurysms at the puncture site develop in up to 8 % after catheter procedures. They can be treated surgically or by ultrasound guided manual compression. A new method is to inject thrombin into the aneurysm under ultrasound guidance. We evaluated safety and efficacy of this approach in a multicenter registry. Methods: In 595 consecutive patients (age: 31-94 years, median 70) a pseudoaneurysm (593 femoral arteries, 2 brachial arteries) was diagnosed 0 to 250 days (median 3 days) after a catheter procedure. The diameter of the aneurysm ranged from 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 (L x W x D) to 8x11x16 cm (median 2 x 2 x1.6 cm). 20 U to 4000 U of thrombin solution (median 400 U) were injected percutaneously into the aneurysm under ultrasound guidance. Results: The procedure was technically successful in 587/595 (99%) patients. The aneurysms were thrombosed after the first injection in 531 patients (89 %). Thirty-eight (6%) patients needed a second injection and 8 (1%) patients a third injection because residual flow in the aneurysm was visible at follow-up. In 4 additional patients (0.7%) the thrombosis of the aneurysms was delayed and occurred only after 24 hours to 7 days. 6 (1%) patients surgery was performed after successful closure of the aneurysm to remove the resulting haematoma. The overall technical success rate was 99% (587/595) and clinical success was achieved in 572/595 (96%) patients. Eight (1%) other patients underwent surgery due to thrombin injection failure. Complications occurred in 9 patients (1.5%): Intravascular thrombus formation (n=3), deep venous thrombosis (n=3), pulmonary embolism due to deep venous thrombosis (n=1), transient paresthesia in the leg during injection (n=3). Conclusion: Ultrasound guided thrombin injection is a safe, painless, effective and rapid alternative to treat false aneurysms. Complications and recurrent pseudoaneurysms are very rare. It has become the treatment of choice in our institution.
Deferred imitations assess declarative memory in infants. Many cross-sectional and a few longitudinal studies revealed that, with development, infants learn faster,and retain more target actions over longer retention intervals. Longitudinal stabilities are modest and increase through the second year. To date, there are only few multivariate deferred imitation studies pointing to interactions between declarative memory, language and self-development. However, as these studies applied variable-centered data analysis approaches, the individual stance was not taken into account.Therefore, the present dissertation focuses on the explanation of inter-individual differences of deferred imitation through the second year. In the multivariate, longitudinal Frankfurt Memory Study (FRAMES), declarative memory (deferred imitation), non-declarative memory (train task), as well as cognitive, language, motor, social, emotional and body self-awareness development (Developmental Test for 6-month- to 6-year-olds, ET6-6) were assessed on three measurement occasions (12-, 18- and 24-month-olds). From a psychometric perspective, sound tests for the assessment of deferred imitation in the respective age groups were developed (Paper 1 & 2). Reliability analyses (Paper 3) indicated relatively high short-term-stability for the deferred imitation test (12-month-olds). The co-development of declarative and nondeclarative memory in 12- and 18-month-olds provided evidence for discriminative validity (Paper 4). Longitudinally, deferred imitation performance tremendously increased throughout the second year, and performance was moderately stable between 12 and 18 months and stability increased between 18 and 24 months. Using a person-centered analysis approach (relative difference scores; cluster analysis), developmental subgroups were extracted out of the total sample. These groups differed in terms of mean growth and stability. However, between the first and second measurement occasion, the groups did not differ with respect to motor, cognitive and language development (Paper 5). Using the data of three measurement occasions, subgroups were extracted showing significant differences with respect to language, motor and body self-awareness development (Paper 6). The results are discussed against the background of infancy development theories.
Both practitioners and academics agree about the importance of price and its direct influenceon consumers’ purchase decision as well as the company profit. In the reality, we rarely see a
single price for a given product. One visit in a store already shows that consumers face many various prices. This strategy of differential prices allows to increase profit but also improves consumers’ situation and increases welfare. A wide range of various price differentiation mechanisms exists on the market which makes price differentiation a very interesting phenomenon. Additionally, market developments constantly allow for new price differentiation applications. In this work, I research a fascinating topic of price differentiation, its various forms
and new application possibilities in changing market areas.
I investigate some of the inert phases in three-flavor, spin-zero color-superconducting quark matter: the CFL phase (the analogue of the B phase in superfluid 3He), the A and A* phases, and the 2SC and sSC phases. I compute the pressure of these phases with and without the neutrality condition. Without the neutrality condition, after the CFL phase the sSC phase is the dominant phase. However, including the neutrality condition, the CFL phase is again the energetically favored phase except for a small region of intermediate densities where the 2SC/A* phase is favored. It is shown that the 2SC phase is identical to the A* phase up to a color rotation. In addition, I calculate the self-energies and the spectral densities of longitudinal and transverse gluons at zero temperature in color-superconducting quark matter in the CFL phase. I find a collective excitation, a plasmon, at energies smaller than two times the gap parameter and momenta smaller than about eight times the gap. The dispersion relation of this mode exhibits a minimum at some nonzero value of momentum, indicating a van Hove singularity.
Transport of proteins into or across cellular membranes is mediated by the conserved and ubiquitous Sec-machinery. The Sec-homologue in the inner membrane of Escherichia coli is SecYEG. Sec-mediated insertion of numerous membrane proteins is aided by YidC, another protein integral to the inner membrane of Escherichia coli. YidC fulfils in addition the integration of a variety of membrane proteins Sec-independently. It belongs to a conserved but structurally uncharacterised family of proteins important for membrane protein biogenesis and comprises homologues in mitochondria and chloroplasts. By modification of a former crystallisation protocol two-dimensional crystals of SecYEG were grown in presence of the signal sequence peptide of LamB. Recording of structural data by electron cryo-microscopy and calculation of a difference structure comparing a former SecYEG projection structure with the one of SecYEG crystallised in presence of the substrate revealed several new and vacant densities. These hint to signal peptide binding close to the translocation pore and to significant rearrangements in proximity to the lateral exit site for transmembrane domains in SecYEG. The difference structure suggests that dimeric SecYEG is an asymmetric molecule consisting of one active and one inactive SecYEG monomer. Detergent removal from a mixture of purified YidC and lipids produced two-dimensional crystals that were highly dependent on the ionic strength and lipid composition for their growth. Electron cryo-microscopy on the frozen-hydrated crystals and image processing visualised structural details at about 10 Å resolution. Averaging two alternative projection structures in p2 and p121_a symmetry, respectively, yielded essentially the same features. Four YidC monomers form one unit cell (dimensions 82 x 71 Å, included angle 85 ° and 90 °, respectively) and seem to be arranged as two sets of dimers integrated in an anti-parallel fashion into the membrane. An area of low density in the centre of each YidC monomer resembles possibly a constriction of the membrane, which could have particular relevance for the integration of substrate proteins into the lipid bilayer.
This work analyses several granitic bodies of the Variscan Orogen of Central and Western Europe in order to improve our knowledge about different aspects of their evolution, regarding their ascent and emplacement mechanisms, as well as their deformation history. In the Iberian Massif two granitoid bodies, namely the La Bazana pluton and the Nisa-Alburquerque batholith, were studied in order to decipher their ascent and emplacement history. The La Bazana pluton is a small, sub-circular body in map view that intruded into rocks of the Ossa-Morena Zone in the core of a late upright antiform. Its three-dimensional drop-pipe shape, its internal dome foliation pattern and the structure of the host rock suggest that the magma ascended and emplaced diapirically. The Nisa-Alburquerque batholith is a large body that intruded into rocks of the Central Iberian Zone, the Central Unit, and the Ossa-Morena Zone. Its cartographic shape is elongate and parallel to the NW—SE to WNW—ESE Variscan structures. In the light of the available structural data and the gravimetric models, the intrusion is viewed as a continuous lateral magma flow from the eastern root guided towards the west through the southern limb of a kilometre-scale antiform. As mass-transfer mechanisms, a combination of rigid translation of the country rocks, stoping, and possibly ballooning is proposed. In the Bohemian Massif several small granitoid bodies showing a strong solid-state deformation were studied in order to integrate their tectonometamorphic history in the geotectonic framework of the south-western Bohemian Massif, focusing principally on the deformation phase referred to as D3. Four ductile deformation phases are proposed for the study area. D1 produced high-temperature fabrics under upper amphibolite to granulite facies conditions. Its kinematics is unknown. D2 occurred under amphibolite to upper greenschist facies conditions under N—S to NNW—SSE compression. It is responsible for a subvertical NW—SE striking foliation in migmatites developed under dextral simple shear and for the deformation at the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system at its earlier stages. Many granitoid dykes and stocks were found to be affected by sinistral shear along subvertical planes trending ENE to ESE. Since this deformation, which is called D3 in the present work, is not compatible with a N—S to NNW—SSE compression, it is proposed that these sinistral shear zones in granites do not belong to the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system and constitute themselves a separated one, which is called “D3 shear-zone system”. D3 took place under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies conditions (~480-550°C). Both the intrusion and the deformation of the granites affected by D3 occurred at deep to intermediate levels of the crust, whereas the deformation took place under NE—SW compression. Datings on two of the deformed granites yielded 324.4 ± 0.8 Ma and 315.0 ± 1.0 Ma: Thus, the age of D3 is most probably ~315 Ma. The intrusion of most of the sheared granitoids was pre-kinematic with respect to D3. After D3 the N—S to NNW—SSE compression which governed D2 was restored, giving way to the next deformation phase D4, which was linked to further deformation at and next to the principal shears of the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system under greenschist facies conditions. The causes for the change of the stress field leading to a NE—SW compression during D3 might be related to (1) global changes in the dynamics of the tectonic plates in late Variscan times, (2) orogenic collapse leading to the sinking of the Teplá-Barrandian and lateral extrusion of the surrounding Moldanubian rocks, (3) distortion of the regional stress field by local intrusion of large stocks, such as the Saldenburg granite of the Fürstenstein Massif, or (4) distortion of the regional stress field due to the existence of ephemeral releasing bends in the Bayerischer Pfahl shear zone during its early evolution.
A detailed understanding of how potassium channels function is crucial e. g. for the development of drugs, which could lead to novel therapeutic concepts for diseases ranging from diabetes to cardiac abnormalities. An improved understanding of channel structure may allow researchers to design medication that can restore proper function of these channels. This is particularly important for KCNQ channels, since four out of five family members are involved in human inherited disease. In addition to structure and function relationships the determinants which govern assembly of KCNQ subunits are decisive to understand the physiological role of the KCNQ channel family members. Many details of KCNQ channel assembly remain incompletely understood. Previous work has shown that the subunit-specific heteromerisation between KCNQ subunits is determined by a ~115 amino acid-long subunit interaction domain (si) within the C-terminus (Schwake et al., 2003). Recently, Jenke et al. (2003) proposed that the C-terminal domains in eag and erg K+ channels act as sites which drive tetramerization. From their ability to form coiled coils, these domains were referred to as tetramerizing coiled-coil (TCC) sequences. Jenke et al. also pointed out that KCNQ channels contain bipartite TCC motifs within their C-termini, exactly within the si domain, which is responsible for the subunit-specific interaction pattern. The first part of this thesis was dedicated to determine the individual role of these TCC domains on homomeric and heteromeric channel formation in order to further characterize the molecular determinants of KCNQ channel assembly. In the second part of this thesis cystein-scanning mutagenesis was employed, followed by thiol-specific modification using MTS reagents to screen more than 20 residues in the S3-S4 linker region and in the S4 transmembrane domain of the KCNQ1 channel to gain information about residue accessibility, the functional effects of thiol-modifying reagents (MTSES), and effects of crosslinking selected pairs of Cys residues by Cd+ ions, which could be used for testing model predictions based upon known Kv channel structures from the literature. According to homology modelling based on the Kv1.2 structure it was attempted to determine the proximity of individual residues from different transmembrane segments using the metal bridge approach (crosslinking by Cd+ ions). This led us to derive structural constraints for interactions between the S4 voltage sensor and adjacent transmembrane segments of KCNQ1. Similar studies have previously been performed on the Shaker K+ channel, which has served as a paradigm for structure-function research of voltage-gated K+ channels for a long time, but little is known for KCNQ channels concerning their similarity to published K+ channel structures.
Molecular mechanism of intracellular signal transduction by the angiotensin-converting enzyme
(2007)
The angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is an important component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and is crucially involved in the homeostasis of fluid and electrolyte balance and thus in the regulation of blood pressure. The zinc metallopeptidase is involved in the generation of angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor and in the degradation of bradykinin, a potent vasodilator. It is worth noting that ACE more readily hydrolyzes bradykinin than it does angiotensin I thus culminating in the net physiological effect of the production of a vasoconstrictor and the decrease in the availability of a vasodilator. ACE inhibitors have become one of the most successful therapeutic approaches as a first line of therapy in hypertension, and are also widely used in treating heart failure, myocardial infarction, stroke, coronary artery disease and impaired left ventricular function. However, one unexpected clinically relevant finding related to ACE inhibitors is their ability to delay the onset of type II diabetes that was revealed by various large clinical trials. However, the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects of ACE inhibitor therapy are currently unclear and cannot be explained by the prevention of angiotensin II formation or the attenuated degradation of bradykinin. Thus the potential beneficial effects attributed to ACE inhibitors may occur independent of reductions in blood pressure paving way for new and/or unknown mechanism. Our group has recently redefined ACE as a signal transduction molecule which upon binding to ACE inhibitor turns on a signalling cascade leading to phosphorylation of Ser1270 by CK2, activation of JNK and changes in gene expression in endothelial cells. However the mechanism by which ACE inhibitor initiates the signalling cascade was not clear. It was hypothesized that ACE, which is anchored to the membrane with a single transmembrane domain should dimerize prior to initiating further downstream signalling events in endothelial cells. Therefore, we sought to explore whether or not ACE forms dimers in endothelial cells and whether ACE dimerization is essential for the initiation of ACE signalling in endothelial cells. Using native gel electrophoresis, we found that ACE forms dimers in endothelial cells and that there is an increase in the dimer formation upon treatment of endothelial cells with ACE inhibitors. ACE homodimerization was also demonstrated using the split-ubiquitin system and chemical cross-linking experiments. ACE dimers are also formed in endothelial cells overexpressing the non-phosphorylatable ACE, wherein ACE signalling was abolished indicating that dimerization process is not influenced by the phosphorylation of the serine residue residing in the cytoplasmic tail. Monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and mannitol did not have any influence on ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization. Making use of different monoclonal antibodies directed to the epitopes of N-domain which harbours carbohydrate recognizing domain, also did not affect dimerization. However, inactivation of the C-domain active site by introducing mutation of the key histidine residues in HEMGH consensus sequences, which complexes the zinc ions, abolished enzyme dimerization both in the basal state and in response to ramiprilat. Mutation of the C-domain also resulted in the loss of ACE inhibitor-induced ACE signalling, that is we failed to observe ramiprilat-induced increase in the phosphorylation of the Ser1270 and the subsequent JNK activation. ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization precedes the phosphorylation of Ser1270 and activation of JNK. Thus the ACE-inhibitor induced dimerization via the C-domain of ACE represents the initial step in the ACE signalling pathway which involves the activation of JNK/c-Jun pathway and leading to the changes in the gene expression in endothelial cells. Our group previously identified ACE itself as well as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as two “ACE signalling-regulated” genes. To screen for additional genes regulated in a similar manner we used DNA microarray technology, to assess ramiprilat-induced changes in the endothelial cell gene expression. 21 genes were identified to be differentially regulated of which, 7 were upregulated and 14 were downregulated by ramiprilat. However, when screened at the protein level, we found no significant differences between the untreated control cells and those treated with ramiprilat. As several other cells and tissues possess a fully functional RAS we screened plasma samples from healthy volunteers as well as from patients with coronary artery disease for the proteins identified in the microarray. We observed that the cellular retinal binding protein-1 (CRBP-1) was detectable at low levels in plasma from patients and that ramipril markedly increased serum levels of this protein. Endothelial cells overexpressing CRBP-1 demonstrated increased RXRE and PPRE activity when stimulated with 9-cis retinoic acid and rosiglitazone respectively suggesting that CRBP-1 might affect gene expression via heterodimerization of PPAR elements with RXR elements by virtue of its function as a transport protein of retinoic acid. Studies aimed at determining the consequences of elevated CRBP-1 expression on endothelial cell homeostasis are ongoing. Although the RAS has been described in many other tissues apart from endothelial cells, ACE signalling has not yet been addressed in tissues such as monocytes/macrophages, which have an increased ACE expression in an atherosclerotic setting. We observed that upon stimulation of cultured ACE expressing monocytes with ramiprilat, JNK is activated suggesting the occurrence of ACE signalling in human monocytes. It is worth noting that ACE inhibitors delay the onset of type II diabetes in spite of moderate decrease in blood pressure. To further elucidate the mechanism underlying this effect, we found that ACE inhibitors increase the PPARgamma levels in the nuclear extracts of ACE expressing monocytes which were also reproduced in human endothelial cells overexpressing human somatic ACE. However, ramiprilat did not have any direct effect on the activity of a luciferase-coupled promoter containing several copies of the PPRE in human endothelial cells. These results contrasted with the actions of the PPARgamma agonist suggesting that ramiprilat enhances PPARgamma levels through an indirect mechanism. We next hypothesized that ramiprilat might increase the levels of 15-deoxy-D12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15dPGJ2) which is a natural ligand for PPARgamma via COX enzymes in monocytes. We observed that ramiprilat was able to decrease the diminution of COX-2 levels upto 48 hours of treatment but the levels of 15dPGJ2 were too low to be detected by ELISA. However ramiprilat enhanced the plasma levels of adiponectin, a downstream target of PPARgamma, which is a anti-atherogenic and anti-inflammatory adipokine, in patients with coronary artery disease. Though adiponectin is a PPARgamma-regulated gene, the observed increase in adiponectin might be attributed to the increase in RXR rather than via PPARgamma. Taken together, the results of this investigation have revealed that ACE inhibitors initiate ACE signalling by eliciting the dimerization of the enzyme, more specifically via its C-domain active centers. The ACE signalling cascade when activated leads to the enhanced expression of ACE, COX-2 and CRBP-1 which in turn favours the heterodimerization of PPARgamma with RXR and thus results in the increased expression of “PPARgamma regulated” genes such as adiponectin. The latter results provide a molecular basis for the observation that ACE inhibitors can delay the onset of type 2 diabetes in as much as it was possible to link ramipril with CRBP-1, RXR activity and the expression of adiponectin, an adipokine associated with improved insulin sensitivity. Further work is however required to elucidate the consequences of ACE inhibitors in monocytes and adipocytes as well as in intact animals.
In this thesis we investigate the role played by gauge fields in providing new observable signatures that can attest to the presence of color superconductivity in neutron stars. We show that thermal gluon fluctuations in color-flavor locked superconductors can substantially increase their critical temperature and also change the order of the transition, which becomes a strong first-order phase transition. Moreover, we explore the effects of strong magnetic fields on the properties of color-flavor locked superconducting matter. We find that both the energy gaps as well as the magnetization are oscillating functions of the magnetic field. Also, it is shown that the magnetization can be so strong that homogeneous quark matter becomes metastable for a range of parameters. This points towards the existence of magnetic domains or other types of magnetic inhomogeneities in the hypothesized quark cores of magnetars. Obviously, our results only apply if the strong magnetic fields observed on the surface of magnetars can be transmitted to their inner core. This can occur if the superconducting protons expected to exist in the outer core form a type-I I superconductor. However, it has been argued that the observed long periodic oscillations in isolated pulsars can only be explained if the outer core is a type-I superconductor rather than type-I I. We show that this is not the only solution for the precession puzzle by demonstrating that the long-term variation in the spin of PSR 1828-11 can be explained in terms of Tkachenko oscillations within superfluid shells.
This thesis is concerned with various aspects of estimating trend output and growth and discusses and evaluates methods to prepare medium-term GDP growth projections. Furthermore, econometric techniques suited for cross-correlated macroeconomic panel data with a focus on factor models are applied for unit root and cointegration testing as well as panel error correction estimation. Applications involve the identification of growth determinants as well as the modelling of aggregate labor supply in a multi-country framework. The first chapter evaluates a very popular method for potential output estimation and medium-term forecasting---the production function approach---in terms of predictive performance. For this purpose, a particular forecast evaluation framework is developed and an evaluation of the predictions of GDP growth for the three to five years ahead for each individual G7 country is carried out. In chapter two, a new approach for estimating trend growth of advanced economies is proposed. The suggestion combines econometric methods that have been used to test and estimate the implications of the extended Solow growth model in a cross sectional time series setting with an application of multivariate time series filter techniques. The last chapter discusses several panel unit root tests designed to accommodate cross-sectional dependence. These methods are then applied to an OECD country sample of the aggregate labor supply measure "hours worked".
The formation and maintenance of a defined three-dimensional structure is a prerequisite for most proteins in order to fulfill their function in the native context. However, there are proteins, which are intrinsically unstructured and thus natively unfolded. In addition, the misfolding and aggregation of many proteins can lead to severe diseases. The investigation of non-native states of proteins significantly contributes to the understanding of protein folding and misfolding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the only known technique that can provide information on structure and dynamics of non-native states of proteins at atomic resolution. Unfolded and non-native states of proteins have to be treated as ensembles of rapidly interconverting conformers and their observed properties are ensemble and time averaged. In this thesis, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and mutants thereof have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The reduction of its four disulfide bridges and the successive methylation of the cysteine residues renders HEWL permanently non-native (‘HEWL-SMe’). Alternatively, the exchange of the eight cysteines for alanines results in very similar states (‘all-Ala-HEWL’). Under these conditions, HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL do not resemble random coil conformations, but exhibit residual secondary and tertiary structure. The presence of hydrophobic clusters and long-range interactions around the proteins six tryptophan residues and the modulation of these properties by single-point mutants has been observed. For the NMR spectroscopic investigation, HEWL has been isotopically labelled in E. coli by expression into inclusion bodies. After purification, the 1HN, 15NH, 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, 13C’, 1Halpha and 1Hbeta resonances of HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL have been assigned almost completely using three-dimensional NMR experiments. The analysis of secondary chemical shifts revealed regions in the proteins sequence — particularly around the six tryptophan residues—with significantly populated alpha-helix like conformations. In order to further elucidate the influence of the tryptophan side chains, a set of two new pulse sequences has been developed that allowed for the successful assignment of the 13Cg, 15Ne and 1HNe resonances in these side chains. This knowledge was eventually exploited in the interpretation of two-dimensional 15N-1H photo-CIDNP spectra, which revealed a differential solvent accessibility of the tryptophan residues in all-Ala-HEWL but not in the single point mutant W62G-all-Ala-HEWL. In addition, heteronuclear R2 relaxation rates have been determined for the indole 15Ne nuclei of all-Ala-HEWL and W62G. While in the wild-type like all-Ala-HEWL, the rates are different among the six tryptophan residues, in W62G they are more uniform. Together with relaxation data from the amide backbone, these results indicate the significant destabilization of the hydrophobic clusters in the absence of W62. In contrast, in the W108G mutant the profile of the R2 relaxation rates was not found to be significantly altered. No evidence was found by R1rho relaxation rates and relaxation dispersion measurements for conformational exchange on slower (micro- to millisecond) timescales. Residual dipolar couplings have been determined for non-native HEWL in order to retrieve structural information of these states. The differences of the W62G and the wild-type like non-native HEWL is also picked up in NH-RDCs of these proteins aligned in polyacrylamide gels. Significant positive RDCs are observed in the regions of the hydrophobic clusters in all-Ala-HEWL, but to a much lesser degree in W62G. So far, all attempts to simulate RDCs from generated non-native ensembles failed even when including long-range contacts or specific phi/psi backbone angle propensities. However, the measured RDCs can be used to cross-validate structural ensembles of non-native HEWL generated by molecular dynamics simulations that are based on restraints from the other experimental data, such as the differential solvent accessibilities from the photo-CIDNP experiments and the data on the hydrophobic clustering gained from the combined mutational and relaxation studies. Finally, non-native HEWL has been investigated for the first time using two-dimensional NMR in organic solvents, which are able to induce secondary structures and ultimately lead to amyloid formation. Under these conditions severe line broadening was observed, which was attributed to exchange between different — mostly a-helical— conformations. In summary, in this thesis methods have been developed, optimized and successfully applied for the structural and dynamical characterization of non-native states of proteins and the effect of single-point mutants on the properties of such ensembles has been investigated. Data has been gained that can considerably contribute to the further elucidation of the nature of non-native states of HEWL by molecular dynamics simulations.
Leukemia inhibitory factor enhances neurogenin's pro-neural effect during mouse cortical development
(2007)
Die Entwicklung von unterschiedlichen Zelltypen waehrend der embryonalen ZNS-Entwicklung ist abhaengig von zellintrinsischen und positionsabhaengigen, aeusseren Einfluessen. Dabei bilden sich die verschiedenen Zellen in nacheinander ablaufenden bzw. sich teilweise ueberlappenden Zeitraeumen. Zuerst entstehen Radiaglia und Neuronen, nachfolgend Astrozyten und zuletzt Oligodendrozyten. Werden neurale Stammzellen/Vorlaeuferzellen (NPCs – neural precursor cells) zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten entnommen und ohne den Einfluss von Wachstumsfaktoren kultiviert, so entwickeln sich diese Zellarten in der gleichen Reihenfolge. Die Neurogenese, die bei Mausembryos am Tag E11-12, nach dem Etablieren der Radialglia, beginnt, findet an E14 ihren Hoehepunkt. Zu diesem Zeitpunt werden die Gene Neurogenin1 (Ngn1) und Ngn2 in den neuralen Vorlaeuferzellen der Ventrikularzone des dorsalen Cortexes in hohem Masse exprimiert. Wie aus Untersuchungen von unserm Labor gezeigt wurde, beguenstigt es die Entstehung von Neuronen und blockiert gleichzeitig Pro-Astrozyten-Einfluesse. Zum einen inhibiert Ngn den JAK/STAT Signalweg, dessen Aktivierung fuer die Gliogenese noetig ist, indem es die Phosphoylierung von STAT1/3 auf bisher noch unbekannte Weise blockiert. Ausserdem bindet der Transkriptions-Coaktivator cAMP-response element binding protein (CBP), welches auch von den STATs fuer die Transkription benoetigt wird, bevorzugt an Ngn sobald dieses von den Vorlaeuferzellen exprimiert wird. Mit dem Tag E16 nimmt die Neurogenese in vivo wieder stark ab und es setzt die Gliogenese ein, bei der zunaechst ueberwiegend Astrozyten gebildet werden. Faktoren wie leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) sowie ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) beguenstigen dabei die Astrozytogenese indem sie den JAK/STAT Signalweg aktivieren. Die Bindung von LIF/CNTF fuehrt zur Phosphorylierung von STAT-Transkriptionsfaktoren, die ihrerseits dann an den CBP/p300 Komplex binden und schliesslich die Expression von Astrozyten-spezifischen Genen aktivieren. Die STAT-Faktoren koennen aber erst nach Abfall des Ngn-Spiegels an den Transkriptions-Coaktivator binden, da sich die Bindungsstellen dieser beiden ueberlappen. Um die Hypothese zu ueberpruefen, dass LIF auch die Neurogenese, oder spezifischer, die Wirkung von Ngn positiv beeinflusst, wurden cortikale NPCs von murinen Embryos entnommen und der Wirkung von LIF via Luciferase Assay untersucht. Dabei wurden die Vorlaeuferzellen mit Ngn und einem Reporter transfiziert, welcher den NeuroD-Promoter beinhaltete. NeuroD-Expression findet in der Regel gegen Mitte/Ende der Neurogenese statt und ist wichtig fuer die Reifung von Neuronen. Der Promoter von NeuroD beinhaltet ein E-box Element, an welches Ngn bindet und die Transkription einleitet. Wie unsere ersten Versuche zeigten, verstaerkt LIF die Transkriptionsaktivitaet von Ngn und somit die Transkription von NeuroD. Wenn aber im selben Versuch ein NeuroD-Reporter transfiziert wurde, dessen E-box mutiert war, wurde keine Transkriptionsaktivitaet gemessen, was wiederum bestaetigte, dass der pro-neurale LIF-Effekt ueber Ngn lief und E-box-Bindung noetig war. Um den Einfluss des pro-neuralen Effekts von LIF auf Proteinebene zu testen, wurden NPCs mit Ngn-Adenovirus infiziert und mit LIF stimuliert. Dabei wurden die Zellen auf die Expression von Neuron-spezifischem class III β-tubulin (TuJ1) untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass LIF bei Zellen, die Ngn exprimierten, die Rate der Neuronen von etwa 5% auf etwa 50% anstiegen liess, waehrend LIF bezueglich der Gliogenese (gezeigt durch die Expression von GFAP) in Ngn-exprimierenden Vorlaeuferzellen kaum Wirkung zeigte. Als naechstes sollte untersucht werden ueber welchen Signalweg LIF Ngn aktivierte. LIF bindet zunaechst an LIF receptor β (LIFRβ), der dann an glycoprotein 130 (gp130) bindet. Diese Bindung fuehrt dann zur Aktivierung mehrerer Signalkaskaden: dem JAK/STAT, dem MAPK, dem Akt/PI3K und dem PLCγ/PKC Signalweg. Da der JAK/STAT Signalweg fuer die Gliogenese wichtig ist, lag unser Fokus auf den anderen Signalwegen. Deren Aktivierung wurde dann mit spezifischen Inhibitoren blockiert und, wie auch in den Vorversuchen, die Wirkung von LIF auf Transkriptionsebene (NeuroD) in neuralen Vorlaeuferzellen bestimmt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Blockierung des PLCγ/PKC Signalweges die NeuroD-Promoteraktivitaet am starksten inhibierte, waehrend auch LIF´s pro-neurale Wirkung verloren ging. Dementsprechend zeigte die Western Blot Analyse, dass die Expression von class III β-tubulin (TuJ1) durch die Anwendung der PKC Inhibitoren am staerksten inhibiert wurde, wobei auch hier die Stimulation durch LIF keine erhoehte Neurogenese mit sich zog. In weiteren Versuchen konnten wir dann mit Hilfe von Immunoprezipitation demonstrieren, dass LIF die Bindung von Ngn an CBP verstaerkte (eine Bindung, welche durch PKC Inhibitoren aufgehoben wurde), was wiederum zu einer erhoehten Bindung dieses Transkriptionskomplexes an den NeuroD Promoter fuehrte, wie unsere Chromatin Immunoprezipitation (ChIP) Daten beweisen. Dies wiederum laesst darauf schliessen, dass womoeglich diese erhoehte Ngn-CBP/NeuroD-Promoter Bindung der Grund fuer die erhoehte NeuroD-Transkriptionsaktivitaet ist daher auch fuer die erhoehte neuronale Differenzierung. Interessanterweise konnten wir auch zeigen, dass Brahma-related gene 1 (Brg1), eine katalytische Untereinheit des SWI/SWF Komplexes, an den Ngn/CBP cotranscriptionalen Komplex bindet und dass diese Bindung durch LIF-Stimulation verstaerkt wurde. Dies suggeriert wiederum, dass auch Brg1 eine wichtige Rolle waehrend der murinen, cortikalen Neurogenese spielt. Dennoch, in folgenden Experimenten verblieb der Fokus auf Ngn und CBP. Um unsere Hypothese zu bestaetigen, dass PKCδ ein moeglicher Mediator des LIF-Effekts sein koennte, zeigten wir zunaechst, dass die PKCδ-Expression in cortikalen NPCs waehrend der Neurogenese erhoeht ist. Desweiteren demonstrierten wir, dass die Inhibition von PKCδ einen aehnliche Wirkung zeigte wie die Inhibition von PKC mit einem generellen PKC Inhibitor: weder war nach PKCδ-Inhibition eine LIF-induzierte NeuroD-Transkription erzielbar, noch wurde nach LIF-Stimulation der pro-neurale Marker class III β-tubulin/TuJ1 in Ngn1-infizierten NPCs exprimiert. Um aber mehr spezifisch die PKC- und PKCδ-Aktivitaet/Expression zu blockieren transfizierten wir NPCs mit PLCγ oder PKCδ siRNA. Unsere Daten zeigten hierbei, dass siRNA-transfizierte Zellen kein class III β-tubulin mehr aufweisen, was darauf hindeuted, dass PKCδ der potentielle Mediator des pro-neuralen LIF-Effekts ist. Durch unsere in vivo Daten demonstrierten wir schliesslich, dass LIF auch hierbei fuer die Neurogenese von Bedeutung ist. Verglichen wurden die Cortices von E13 LIF Het (heterozygote) und KO (knock out) Maeusen mit denen von WT (wild type) Maeusen. Durch Immunohistologie von Hirnschnitten konnten dabei keine groesseren Unterschiede bezueglich der Expression neuraler Marker beobachtet werden, waehrend aber mit Hilfe der Western Blot Analyse, eine quantitativere Methode, gezeigt wurde, dass LIF Het und KO Maeuse weniger pro-neurale Marker im Cortex exprimieren wie WT Mause. Um auch zu beweisen, dass dies auf eine verringerte Transkription von NeuroD zurueckzufuehren ist, demonstrierten wir mit Hilfe des ChIP Assay, dass LIF Het und KO Maeuse weniger Ngn1-CBP Bindung an den NeuroD-Promoter aufweisen wie WT Maeuse. Diese Experimente veranschaulichen einen eleganten Regulationsmechanismus, durch welchen ein einzelner, extrazellulaerer Faktor die unterschiedliche Differenzierung einer Zelle verstaerkt, abhaengig von der Anwesenheit oder Abwesenheit eines einzelnenn intrazellulaeren Faktors. Auch koennen durch die erlangten Resultate Strategien entworfen werden, durch die in Zukunft die Produktion bestimmter Neurone zur Heilung von verschiedenen, neurodegenerativen Krankheiten erhoeht wird.
The retinoic acid related orphan receptor alpha (RORalpha) regulates the expression of various target genes by binding to specific response elements in their promoter region. RORalpha is an interesting pharmaceutical target since it positively affects several pathophysiological processes of clinical relevance. RORalpha enhances the expression of Apo-AI protein, the major constituent of HDL, which is responsible for the cholesterol transportation. RORalpha notably contributes to the bone mineralization and generation of the extracellular bone matrix, demonstrating its involvement in osteoporosis, and by up-regulating the gene for IKBalpha, RORalpha has anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, RORalpha is necessary for cerebellar development and the maintenance of the mammalian day-night periodicity governed by the core-clock within the suprachiasmatic nuclei. RORalpha receptors have been reported to bind cholesterol, melatonin, or to function ligand-independent. By monomeric binding to the recognition motif AGGTCA preceded by an A/T-rich sequence (ROR response element, RORE), RORalpha constitutively activates gene transcription. However, RORalpha activity is passively suppressed by its opponents RevErbalpha and RevErbbeta, which both bind to the same target sequence. ...