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NE Mount Kenya is characterised by dense population and small scale farming is the main form of land use. In the region, continual pressure on the forest resources as result of land use is a continuing problem. The NE Mount Kenya Forest Reserves (Imenti Forest Reserve, Mount Kenya Forest Reserve) play an important role in the livelihood of the neighbouring communities. However population pressure, reserve management policies, economic changes, an ineffective land tenure system and poverty are socio-economic factors contributing to land use changes and an intensification of agriculture. Illegal factors like clearing forest vegetation for firewood and grazing areas, at the expense of the protected forest areas, are present. This study focuses on an interdisplinary approach to analyse socio-economic and ecological factors in NE Mount Kenya relevant to land degradation. This includes remote sensing data (interpretation of satellite images Landsat TM 1987 and ETM 2000) combined with interviews from the land user’s perspective. Ethnographic research of this type on this topic has not been done in the region before. This entailed applying both a qualitative (giving farmers the opportunity to identify factors they perceived as important in regard to land use) and a quantitative method of data analysis. The Mount Kenya Forest region is distinguished by high elevation and a humid to sub-humid climate, while the Imenti Forest region lies lower and is characterised by semi-humid and transitional zones. Land use in the Mount Kenya Forest region is mainly perennial thus eliminating seasonal land use changes. In the Imenti Forest region, 30% of the farmers said they had gone through major land use changes within the last 20 years. The major land use change consisted of a shift from residential farming in the protected areas which offered more farming and grazing areas, to being restricted to individual farm plots which consequently led to the intensification of cultivation thus contributing to land degradation. The satellite images in the same region show a clear decrease in coverage of forest vegetation and an increase in open areas in the Imenti Forest region which the farmers explain influences the tentative land use changes in the region. On the other hand, in the Mount Kenya forest region, there has been an increase in forest vegetation cover which is also evident in the satellite images. Areas that were plantation and cultivated regions in 1987 have forest cover in 2000, which the farmers stated was as a result of their afforestation initiatives. Nevertheless, indicators of degradation e.g. rill and gully erosion are evident and correlated to the intensified land use in both forest regions. The population impact in the region apparently intensifies land use therefore the identified socio-economic factors in the region should be given priority in integrating development projects that are directly beneficial to park-adjacent communities according to the needs of the particular agro-ecological zone (AEZ). Location specific research can better enhance the understanding of the socio-economic factors influencing land use change. Furthermore, promoting alternative income generating activities, besides the present livestock and crop farming, can help reduce the risks of land degradation.
End-stage renal disease has been denominated a vasculopathic state, owing to the accelerated arterial stiffening, which occurs in addition to and independent of atherosclerosis and bears an increased cardiovascular risk. The altered metabolic milieu in uraemia leads to an increased oxidative stress, heightened inflammatory burden, and an abnormal calcium-phosphate metabolism, which are thought to be responsible for the vascular changes. The pulse wave velocity (PWV) is a widely employed surrogate parameter of arteriosclerosis. The purpose of this study was to gain more insight into the pathogenesis of arterial stiffness, by investigating the influence of markers of oxidative stress, procoagulation, and inflammation, and of the calcium-phosphate product on the PWV. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 53 stable patients aged 59 ± 16 years, who had been on haemodialysis for at least 4 months (68 ± 48). Carotid-radial PWV was measured using a semi-automated device, Complior SP (Artech Medical, France). Advanced glycosylation end-products (AGE) and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), were quantified according to previously described methods. High sensitive CRP was measured using ELISA, whereas the other biochemical parameters, i.e. fibrinogen, albumin, calcium, phosphate, cholesterol, and triglycerides, were determined using routine methods. For statistical calculations we employed SPSS (Statistical Package of Social Science, 12.0, 2003). The correlations between PWV, as the dependent variable, and many dependent variables were assessed by means of multiple regression analysis, in which we controlled for the influence of the traditional cardiovascular risk factors and some of the patients’ medication (calcium-channel blockers and statins). PWV was found to be significantly correlated to serum CRP (p=0.003), LDLcholesterol (p<0.001), triglycerides (p<0.001), AGE (p=0.002), calcium (p<0.001), phosphate (p=0.001), and fibrinogen (p=0.020). Between PWV and dialysis duration (months) an interesting quadratic relationship (p=0.058) was noted. Against expectation, regression analysis showed a negative correlation between AOPP and PWV (p=0.001). We failed to confirm the correlation between PWV and age, systolic blood pressure, or heart rate. Among traditional cardiovascular risk factors only LDL-cholesterol was positively correlated to PWV. In this cross-sectional analysis we could put forward that PWV correlates positively and significantly with fibrinogen, CRP, AGEs, calcium, phosphate, and LDL-cholesterol in haemodialysis patients. It seems procoagulatory and proinflammatory pathways, oxidative stress, and the calcium-phosphate product exert a synergistic effect on disturbances of vascular architecture in ESRD patients.
To determine the effects of inhaled IL-10 at different doses and different time points on the pulmonary and systemic inflammatory response during endotoxemia, 48 ventilated, anaesthetized rats (mean body weight ± standard deviation, 500 ± 33g) were randomly assigned to six groups (n = 8, each). Interleukin-10 was nebulised either prior to or following the intravenous injection of LPS (5mg/kg) at two doses (5.0 mycro-g or 0.5 mycro-g) in our groups. Eight rats received the same insult with no further treatment (LPS-only group). Another eight rats served as controls without endotoxemia but with aerosolized phosphate-buffered saline, the solvent of IL-10 (Sham group). Concentrations of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, and IFN-gamma were analyzed in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). In addition, the nitrite release from ex-vivo cultured alveolar macrophages was determined. As compared to the LPS-only group, the concentrations of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, and IFN-gamma in plasma were significantly reduced in the group, which inhaled 5 mycro-g IL-10 before LPS injection (p< 0.0125). Spontaneous nitrite release from exvivo cultured alveolar macrophages was suppressed in this group (p< 0.0125). Inhalation of 0.5 mycro-g IL-10 before LPS injection and both dosages of IL-10 inhalation (5 mycro-g or 0.5 mycro-g) after LPS injection did not significantly influence either inflammatory cytokine concentrations in BALF, in plasma or the nitrite release from ex-vivo cultured alveolar macrophages. In this study, inhaled IL-10 only demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects when it was administered at 5 mycro-g prior to the induction of experimental endotoxemia. Interleukin-10 aerosol had no effect when it was given either following induction of endotoxemia or given at a lower dosage (which here was 0.5 mycro-g) either before or following injection of lipopolysaccharide.
The goal of this thesis was to gain further insight into the binding behavior of ligands in the heptahelical domain (HD) of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). This was realized by the establishment of strategies for the detection and optimization of molecules acting as non-competitive antagonists of group I mGluRs (mGluR1/5). These strategies should guarantee high diversity in the retrieved chemotypes of the detected compounds not resembling original reference molecules (“scaffold-hopping”). The detection of new scaffolds, in turn, was divided into two approaches: First the development of pharmacological assays to screen compounds at a certain target for bioactivity (here: affinity towards the allosteric recognition site of mGluR1 and mGluR5), and second the evaluation of computer assisted methods for the identification of virtual hits to be screened afterwards on the pharmacological assays established before. Promising molecules should be optimized with respect to activity/affinity and selectivity, their binding mode investigated and, finally, compared to existing lead compounds. Initially, membrane based binding assays for the HD of mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors with enhanced throughput (shifting from 24-well plates to 96-well plates) were set up. For the mGluR1 assay the potent antagonist EMQMCM exhibited high affinity towards the binding site (Ki ~3nM), which is in accordance with published data from Mabire et al. (functional IC50 3nM). For mGluR5 the reference antagonist MPEP binds with high affinity to the receptor (binding IC50 13.8nM), which confirmed earlier findings from Anderson et al. (binding IC50 15nM). In another series of experiments the properties of rat cerebellar (mGluR1) and corticalmembranes (mGluR5) as well as of radiotracers were investigated by means of binding saturation studies and kinetic experiments. Furthermore, the influence of the solvent DMSO, necessary for compound screening of lipophilic substances, on positive and negative controls was evaluated. As the precise architecture of the HD of mGluR1 is still not known our efforts in identifying new ligands for this receptor focused on the ligand-based approach. All computer assisted methods that were applied to virtually screen large compound collections and to retrieve potential hits (“activity-enriched subsets”) acting at the heptahelical domain of mGluR1 relied on the existence of a valid dataset of reference molecules. This was realized by an initial compilation of a mGluR reference data collection comprising in total 357 entries predominantly negative but also some positive allosteric modulators for mGluR1 and mGluR5. In the next step a pharmacophore model for non-competitive mGluR1 antagonists was constructed. It was based upon six selective, potent and structurally diverse ligands. Prospective virtual screening was performed using the CATS atom-pair descriptor. The Asinex Gold-Collection was screened for each seed compound and some of the most similar compounds (according to the CATS descriptor) were ordered and tested forbinding affinity and functional activity at mGluR1. A high hit rate of approximately 26% (IC50 < 15 micro M) was yielded confirming the applicability of this method. One compound exerted functional activity below one micro molar (IC50-value of C-07:362nM ± 0.03). Moreover, non-linear principal component analysis was employed. Again the Asinex vendor database served as test database and was filtered by the pharmacophore model for mGluR1 established before. Test molecules that were adjacently located with mGluR1 antagonist references were selected. 15 compounds were tested on mGluR1 in binding and functional assays and three of them exhibited functional activity (IC50) below 15 micro M. The most potent molecule P-06 revealed an IC50-value of 1.11 micro M (± 0.41). The COBRA database comprising 5,376 structurally diverse bioactive molecules affecting various targets was encoded with the CATS descriptor and used for training two selforganizing maps (SOM). The encoded mGluR reference data collection was projected onto this map according to the SOM algorithm. This projection allowed to clearly distinguish between antagonists of mGluR1 and mGluR5 subtype. 28 compounds were ordered and tested on activity and affinity for mGluR1. They exhibited functional activity down to the sub-micro molar range (IC50-value of S-08: 744nM ± 0.29) yielding a final hit rate of 46% (<15 micro M). Then, the Asinex collection was screened using the SOM approach. For a predicted target panel including the muscarinic mACh (M1) receptor, the histamine H1-receptor and the dopamine D2/D3 receptors, the tested mGluR ligands exhibited the calculated binding pattern. This virtual screening concept might provide a basis for early recognition of potential sideeffects in lead discovery. We superimposed a set of 39 quinoline derivatives as non-competitive mGluR1 antagonists that were recently published by Mabire and co-workers. A CoMFA model (QSAR) was established and the influence of several side chains on functional activity was investigated. The coumarine derivative C-07 was obtained as a result of similarity searching. Starting from this compound a series of chemical derivatives was synthesized. This led to the discovery of potent (B-28, IC50: 58nM ± 0.008; Ki: 293nM ± 0.022) and selective (rmGluR5 IC50: 28.6 micro M) mGluR1 antagonists. From a homology model of mGluR1 we derived a potential binding mode for coumarines within the allosteric transmembrane region. Potential interacting patterns with amino acids were proposed considering the difference of the binding pockets between rat and human receptors. The proposed binding modes for quinolines (here:EMQMCM) and coumarines (here:B-04) were compared and discussed considering in particular the influence on activity of several side chains of quinolines obtained from the QSAR studies. The present studies demonstrated the applicability of ligand-based virtual screening for non-competitive antagonists of a G-protein coupled receptor, resulting in novel, potent and selective agents.
In this thesis we investigate the role played by gauge fields in providing new observable signatures that can attest to the presence of color superconductivity in neutron stars. We show that thermal gluon fluctuations in color-flavor locked superconductors can substantially increase their critical temperature and also change the order of the transition, which becomes a strong first-order phase transition. Moreover, we explore the effects of strong magnetic fields on the properties of color-flavor locked superconducting matter. We find that both the energy gaps as well as the magnetization are oscillating functions of the magnetic field. Also, it is shown that the magnetization can be so strong that homogeneous quark matter becomes metastable for a range of parameters. This points towards the existence of magnetic domains or other types of magnetic inhomogeneities in the hypothesized quark cores of magnetars. Obviously, our results only apply if the strong magnetic fields observed on the surface of magnetars can be transmitted to their inner core. This can occur if the superconducting protons expected to exist in the outer core form a type-I I superconductor. However, it has been argued that the observed long periodic oscillations in isolated pulsars can only be explained if the outer core is a type-I superconductor rather than type-I I. We show that this is not the only solution for the precession puzzle by demonstrating that the long-term variation in the spin of PSR 1828-11 can be explained in terms of Tkachenko oscillations within superfluid shells.
The rate of species extinctions due to anthropogenic activities has dramatically increased within the past few centuries (Dirzo & Raven, 2003; Novacek & Cleland, 2001). Although the mechanisms and ultimate causes leading to the extinction of species remain largely unclear (Frankham et al., 2002), five threats to global biodiversity have frequently been referred to as the most important: habitat destruction and fragmentation, global climate change, hunting and overuse of food resources, biological invasions and environmental pollution (Dudgeon et al., 2006; Lewis, 2006; Novacek & Cleland, 2001). Different research fields, as conservation biology, ecology and ecotoxicology, investigate the effects of these factors on organisms and found strong evidence for their negative impact on regional and global biodiversity.
In most cases, natural populations will be impacted not only by one threat, but rather a combination of them (Buckley & Roughgarden, 2004; Kappelle et al., 1999). Multiple environmental stress factors can have cumulative negative effects on the survival of populations (Sih et al., 2004). To understand, how natural populations respond to combinations of different stress factors is thus of crucial importance in order to understand our present and future impact on all scales of biodiversity (Warren et al., 2001).
The effects of anthropogenically introduced chemicals on organisms and ecosystems are investigated in the field of ecotoxicology. Research in this area has led to a large body of information concerning the impact of chemical stress on the fitness of model species in the laboratory. In contrast to this, there is an obvious lack of knowledge on the effects of contaminants on natural populations and communities (Bickham et al., 2000; Bourdeau et al., 1990). For instance, ecotoxicologists have just started to investigate the impact of environmental pollution on the genetic variability of natural populations (Bickham et al., 2000; Whitehead et al., 2003). Genetic variation provides the raw material for populations in order to adapt to changing environmental conditions and is thus the substrate for evolution and long-term survival of populations and species (Frankham, 2005). The amount of genetic variation in populations is positively correlated with the effective population size (Frankham, 1996). Habitat destruction and fragmentation has divided the ranges of many species into small and isolated refuges. Without migration from adjacent habitats, isolated populations will decrease in their level of genetic diversity through random loss of alleles (Hedrick, 2000). Frankham (1995) for instance, showed that 32 of the 37 endangered species (which occur in small populations per definition) of different animals and plant taxa display reduced levels of heterozygosity compared to closely related and more frequent species.
In strongly human impacted landscapes, both factors, environmental pollution and habitat destruction, can be expected to occur frequently together. It is thus of crucial importance to investigate the impact of reduced genetic diversity and inbreeding on the response to chemical stress. In addition, chemical exposure has frequently been discussed to have an impact on the extent of genetic variability in exposed populations (Guttman, 1994; Staton et al., 2001; van Straalen & Timmermans, 2002). However, evidence for this 'genetic erosion hypothesis' remained scarce to date, most likely because of the difficulty to single out the impact of pollution stress from a background of multiple factors which influence patterns of genetic variability in natural populations (Belfiore, 2001; Staton et al., 2001; van Straalen & Timmermans, 2002).
An application of EPR spectroscopy that is becoming increasingly important is the measurement of distances between electron spins. Several EPR methods have been developed for this purpose, all based on measuring the dipolar coupling between two spins. Due to the specific nature of the sample, we applied dipolar relaxation enhancement measurements to study the geometry of a protein-protein complex. The paramagnetic centers in question had EPR spectra that were too broad and had such short relaxation time that they could not be studied using the more straightforward PELDOR technique. EPR spectral resolution can be increased appreciably by measuring at a frequency higher than conventional X-band (9 GHz) frequency. The spectra of many paramagnetic species can only be resolved at frequencies higher than 90 GHz. For accurate measurement of the orientation of the vector between two dipolar coupled spins with respect to the g-tensors of the spins, high spectral resolution is required. We therefore performed our EPR measurements at G-band (180 GHz) frequency. Dipolar relaxation measurements were applied to study the complex that is formed by the two electron-transfer proteins cytochrome c and cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from the soil bacterium Paracoccus denitrificans. We were able to detect dipolar relaxation enhancement due to complex formation of soluble subunit II of P.d. CcO (CcOII) with two substrate cytochromes, which was practically absent in a mixture of CcOII with the negative control protein cytochrome c1. This complex formation was characterized by a pronounced temperature dependence that could be simulated using a home-written computer program. The G-band EPR measurements could not be simulated with a single complex geometry. This provided evidence for the hypothesis that electron-transfer protein complexes are short-lived and highly dynamic; they do not seem to form one specific electron-transfer conformation, but rather move around on each other’s binding surfaces and transfer an electron as soon as the distance between donor and acceptor is short enough. As a test of our simulation program, we also applied dipolar relaxation measurements to specially synthesized organic molecules that contained a nitroxide radical and a metal center. The transverse relaxation of Cu2+-OEP-TPA was compared to the relaxation of Ni2+-OEP-TPA at temperatures between 20 and 120 K. In this temperature range, the nitroxide relaxation was enhanced due to the presence of Cu2+, but not by Ni2+. Similarly, relaxation enhancement was found in the nitroxide-Mn2+ pair in Mn2+-terpyridine-TPA with respect to the terpyridine-TPA ligand. Due to the fast T2 relaxation of the nitroxide radical at high temperatures, the measurements were all performed in the low-temperature regime where the T1 relaxation rate of the metal ion was smaller than the dipolar coupling frequency. In this region, no structural information about the molecule can be deduced, since the dipolar relaxation enhancement is only determined by the T1 of the metal ion. The dipolar relaxation measurements we performed at high field indicated a difference in relaxation times between X-band and G-band frequencies. Extensive T1 - measurements of different paramagnetic centers (CuA, Cu2+) confirmed a strong dependence of T1 on magnetic field in the temperature range where the direct process is the dominating T1 relaxation process. This dependence is very strong (factor of 103 with respect to X-band), but does not follow the B04 dependence predicted in literature. The T1 relaxation of low-spin iron in cytochrome c at high magnetic field, estimated from dipolar relaxation data, is also in agreement with a larger contribution by the direct process (factor of 104). Dipolar relaxation enhancement was found to be a technique that is useful for measuring distances between paramagnetic centers, but only for systems where several important conditions are met, such as: the system exists in one certain static geometry, and the relaxation rate of the fast-relaxing spin is faster than the dipolar coupling frequency within the accessible temperature range. Additionally, it is a great advantage for the analysis of dipolar relaxation data if the procedure of dividing the relaxation trace of the dipolar-coupled slow-relaxing spin by the relaxation trace of the slow-relaxing spin in absence of dipolar coupling can be applied. Another useful application of dipolar relaxation enhancement measurements is the measurement of T1 relaxation of extremely fast-relaxing spins, or spins that are otherwise difficult to detect.
Photosystem II (PSII) is a polypeptide-cofactor complex organised as a homodimeric multisubunit protein embedded in the thylakoid membrane. PSII monomers are heterooligomers related to each other by a pseudo-twofold axis perpendicular to the membrane plane (Loll et al. 2005). PSII acts as a photochemical enzyme that through the chlorophylls and the other cofactors catalyses photon capture and electron transfer from water to the plastoquinone pool with concomitant evolution of oxygen. Photon capture and charge separation take place in the PSII core which consists of the D1 and D2 proteins, the cytochrome b559 alpha- and beta-chains (PsbE and F subunits) and the chlorophyll a-binding antenna proteins CP43 and CP47 (Loll et al. 2005). The remaining polypeptides are low molecular mass proteins with not clearly understood fuctions; they include chloroplast-encoded (PsbH, I, J, K, L, M, N, T and Z) and nucleus-encoded (PsbR, S, W and X) proteins consisting of one to four transmembrane helices (Barber et al. 1997). The oxygen-evolving part of PSII consists of a Mn-Ca transition complex called Mn cluster or oxygen evolving complex that is situated on the luminal side of PSII. In higher plants it is stabilised by the PsbO (33 kDa), PsbP (23 kDa) and PsbQ (17 kDa) extrinsic subunits (Soursa et al. 2006; Ifuku et al. 2005). The structure and mechanisms related to the oxygen evolving complex of PSII are not completely clarified. Currently two high resolution structures from the cyanobacteria S. elongatus are available (Loll et al. 2005; Ferreira et al. 2004) Nevertheless structural information is not as well defined in green algae and higher plants as in cyanobacteria. In fact the 8Å structure available from spinach has too low resolution for addressing questions such as the structural and functional differences in respect to PSII from cyanobateria (Rhee et al. 1997).. Therefore it is obvious that for PSII from higher plants the main general questions are still open: is the structure of PSII from higher plants equivalent to the structures observed in cyanobacteria? Is the typical higher plants subunit PsbS stably or transiently bound to PSII? Finding an answer to these questions was the main focus of this work. In this work a simple and rapid protocol to isolate the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) core complex from Nicotiana tabacum was developed. A PSII having a His-tag extension made of six or ten consecutive histidine residues at the N-terminus of the PsbE subunit was purified by a single-step Ni2+ NTA-affinity column chromatography after solubilisation of the thylakoid membranes using different mild detergents. Characterization of the oxygen evolution and the subunit composition by immunoblotting and mass spectroscopy revealed that the His-tagging did not affect the functional integrity of the PSII reaction center. The final PSII core complex was purified in a single step from solubilised thylakoids in less than 14 hours getting a very pure sample in high amount. The isolated core complex was in a dimeric form as demonstrated by Blue Native PAGE, analytical gel filtration and single particles analysis; with a molecular mass of about 500 kDa, consisting of D1, D2, CP43, CP47, 33 kDa and low molecular weight proteins. The preparation retains a high rate of oxygen-evolving activity but showed different stabilities of the binding of the three extrinsic proteins. The subunit of 33 kDa was always present in the preparations with a constant amount, whereas the 23 and 17 kDa subunits were always in less and unconstant amounts. Nevertheless the oxygen evolution was not depending on the amount of the 23 and 17 kDa subunits. Furthermore the preparation showed a high oxygen-evolving activity of 1390 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in presence of betaine, while its activity was 440-680 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in its absence. The presence of 1.0 mol/L betaine during the isolation of PSII increased the preservation of the photochemical activity hence the oxygen evolution. It was inferred from these results that His-tagging does not affect the functional and structural integrity of the PSII core complex and that the “Histag strategy” is highly useful for biochemical, physicochemical and structural studies of higher plant PSII. PSII is directly involved in two essential processes, the efficient capture and funnelling of light energy to the reaction centre and the controlled dissipation of excess excitation energy. Those functions require structural and functional flexibility in order to be performed with high efficiency. Moreover light-harvesting proteins respond to an external signal, the thylakoid pH, to induce feedback control regulating those activities in every moment. This process called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is mainly depending on the xanthophyll cycle and the PsbS protein (Szabo et al. 2005). In this work several new evidences related with those two processes were found. The subunit PsbS is a polypeptide whose involvement in the NPQ processes is debated. Nevertheless, its position in the PSII complex and the mechanisms by which this subunit contributes to carry out the NPQ functions are not definitely known. In addition it is not sure if it is a pigment binding protein or not. Currently several lines of evidence indicate that this subunit is able to bind two molecules of zeaxanthin, one of the pigments involved in the xanthophyll cycle. In this work immunolabelling indicated that PsbS is tightly bound to the PSII core dimer, monomer and incomplete PSII particles as Reaction Centre-CP47 (RC-CP47). Furthermore qualitative HPLC indicates a complete absence of zeaxanthin in the sample and the presence of violaxanthin, another pigment involved in the xanthophyll cycle. The absence of zeaxanthin was expected considering that the plants were harvested after the dark period and that the particles were purified in complete dark (or in green light), whereas the presence of violaxanthin was unexpected considering that so far no evidence of violaxanthin bound to PSII cores devoid of LHC proteins was reported. Furthermore the amount of chlorophyll b was not relevant for suspecting this pigment bound to PsbS. Therefore we conclude that if PsbS is able to bind chlorophyll it has to be a chlorophyll a. The results indicate that PsbS could be able to bind not only zeaxanthin but also violaxanthin. The extrinsic subunit Psb27 was also found in this preparation. The presence and the amount of this subunit, reported to be involved in the repair of damaged PSII, was not constant and therefore behaving as the other two extrinsic proteins 23kDa (PsbP) and 17kDa (PsbQ). Electron crystallography studies on spinach PSII particles purified by differential solubilisation resulted in crystalline tubes with new unit cell constants. From data analysis a density map at 15Å resolution was obtained with a P22121 symmetry. However, at this resolution it cannot be said if the internal symmetry axis is related with the two-fold axis of the dimer or the pseudo two-fold axis of the monomer. In conclusion a method to isolate functional, pure PSII core complexes was developped. These samples, together with the improved 2d crystallisation protocol could lead to crystals with higher quality hence better resolution density maps in the future.
Two distinct mechanisms contribute to the development of blood vessels: vasculogenesis, which is the de novo formation of vascular structures from progenitor cells, and angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones.
Angiogenesis is a highly ordered and carefully regulated multi-step process, during which the precise spatio-temporal interaction between endothelial and mural cells, i.e. smooth muscle cells and pericytes, is prerequisite for the formation of a functional blood vessel. The crosstalk between these two latter cell ty pes is mediated indirectly by various
secreted growth factors, and directly through cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. The secretory epidermal growth factor-like protein 7 (EGFL7) has been implicated to
play an important role in the regulation of smooth muscle and endothelial cell recruitment and vascular tube formation. However, in-depth investigation of the underlying molecular mechanism has so far been hampered by the lack of functional recombinant EGFL7. In this study for the first time full length EGFL7 was successfully expressed as a His 6- tagged fusion protein from insect cells using the Baculovirus expression vector system. Recombinant EGFL7 was purified in a two-step protocol involving ion metal affinity chromatography and gel filtration. Furthermore, recombinant EGFL7 was
purified from human embryonic kidney EBN A 293 cells using a similar approach, allowing the production of high amounts of recombinant EGFL7 protein in its native state, with proper post-translational processing and full biological activity. Detailed analysis of the post-translational processing of recombinant EGFL7 and EGFL7-mutants revealed extensive proteolytic processing by protein convertases both at the N- and the C-terminus, the latter being prerequisite for EGFL7 secretion. Furthermore, secreted EGFL7 protein was shown to bind to the extracellular matrix and the responsible heparin-binding domain of EGFL7 was mapped to its N-terminal
portion. Purified recombinant EGFL7 protein was tested for its functionality using cell migration assays, cell proliferation studies and in vivo matrigel studies in mice. In the
modified Boyden chamber migration assay, recombinant EGFL7 proteins inhibited PDGF-BB-induced smooth muscle cell migration. Moreover, recombinant EGLF7 proteins strongly inhibited PDGF-BB-induced proliferation of smooth muscle cells, while it did not affect VEGF induced proliferation of endothelial cells. When applied in the in vivo matrigel plug assay, EGFL7 proteins induced a strong pro-angiogenic response, comparable with that of VEGF on an equimolar basis. Moreover, EGFL7 expression was strongly induced in endothelial cells in response to VEGF stimulation. These novel findings demonstrate the important function of EGFL7 in angiogenesis and are well in line with previous results. They demonstrate a cell specific action of EGFL7 on the different cell types involved in vessel formation, which is a prerequisite for a regulatory function in cell-to-cell crosstalk. Based on the results described here, the following model can be proposed: VEGF, a known strong initiator of angiogenesis, induces endothelial cell proliferation and migration, allowing the
escape from the comparatively rigid structure of a functional vessel to form an angiogenic sprout. At the same time VEGF induces the expression of EGFL7 in endothelial cells. EGFL7 is expressed, proc essed and secreted from these cells. While EGFL7 has no known effect on endothelial cells, it inhibits smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, providing a mechanism to prevent pre-mature stabilization of the forming vessel. The availability of purified recombinant EGFL7 will be helpful in the detailed characterization of the underlying molecular mechanism of EGFL7 action, including the identification of the putative EGFL7 receptor, and will allow - together with knock-out experiments in mice - the exploration of the additional biological functions of EGFL7. Moreover, considering the strong pro-angiogenic effect of EGFL7 in vivo, it would be also of a great therapeutic interest to investigate its role in the development of tumor vasculature. The insights into these molecular mechanisms might provide a novel approach for the development of anti tumor therapies.
Colorectal cancer is one of the most cause of cancer and death in Western societies. Recently, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs), which regulate transcription through modification of chromatin structure, received considerable interest on the ground of they ability to stop the growth and induce cell death in colon cancer tumours, representing a promising transcriptional cancer therapy. This kind of cancer initiates with an activating mutation in the Wnt cascade, allowing the nuclear import of ß-catenin binding to LEF/TCF. This induces the overexpression of growthpromoting oncogenes affecting the cell cycle arrest, lineage-specific cell differentiation and apoptosis processes. In addition, ß-catenin also participates in cell-cell adhesion via interactions with E-cadherin, which can be repressed by families of transcription factors Snail and ZEB. This, and gain of vimentin has been closely correlated with local invasion and metastasis since they avoid the induction of apoptosis through the loss of cell anchorage, a phenomenon called anoikis. In this process the inactivation of the kinases Src an FAK provoking disruption of focal adhesion complexes through is involved. LAQ824 is a HDAC inhibitor derivative of hydroxamic acid, which present antitumor effect in colon and other cancer cells. The aim of this study is to analyse the effect of LAQ824 in cell proliferation, apoptosis, motility and tumour invasion in a colon carcinoma model based on the adenoma-carcinoma sequence descrying trough which pathways LAQ824 is able to cause these effects. Here I demonstrate for the first time that a HDAC inhibitor, LAQ824, induces detachmentinduced cell death of colon cancer cell lines HCT116 and HT-29, a phenomenon called anoikis, in a caspase-dependent and p53-independent manner. In this process the component of the Wnt signalling pathway ß-catenin is involved. Furthermore LAQ824 upregulates the adhesion molecule E-cadherin expression in these cell lines independently of its repressor Snail, but probably mediated by the repressor ZEB. In addition LAQ824-induced anoikis is caused by disruption of focal adhesion complexes through inhibition of the activity of the kinases FAK and Src inhibiting cell motility indicating a strong antimetastatic potential for LAQ824.
Intrinsic response properties of auditory thalamic neurons in the Gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus)
(2007)
Neurons in the medial geniculate body (MGB) have the complex task of processing the auditory ascending information from the periphery and a more extensive descending input from the cortex. Differences in the pattern of afferent and efferent neuronal connections suggest that neurons in the ventral and dorsal divisions of the MGB take different roles in this complex task. The ventral MGB (vMGB) is the primary, tonotopic, division and the dorsal MGB (dMGB) is one of the higher order, nontonotopic divisions. The vMGB neurons are arranged tonotopically, have sharp tuning properties, and a short response delay to acoustic stimuli. The dMGB neurons are not tonotopically arranged, have broad tuning properties, and a long response delay to acoustical stimuli. These two populations of neurons, with inherently different tasks, may display differences in intrinsic physiological properties, e.g. the capacity to integrate information on a single cell level. Neurons of the ventral and dorsal divisions of the MGB offer an ideal system to explore and compare the intrinsic neuronal properties related to auditory processing. Coronal slices of 200 μm thicknesses were prepared from the thalamus of 4 - 5 week old gerbils. The current-clamp configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used to do experiments on the dorsal and ventral divisions of the medial geniculate body. Slices were subsequently Nissl stained to verify the location of recording. Recordings from the dorsal and ventral divisions exhibited differences in response to depolarizing current injections. The ventral division responded with significantly shorter first spike latency (vMGB = 41.50 ± 7.7, dMGB = 128.43 ± 16.28; (p < 0.01)) and rise time constant (vMGB = 6.95 ± 0.90, dMGB = 116.67 ± 0.13; (p < 0.01)) than the dMGB. Neurons in the dorsal division possessed a larger proportion of slowly accommodating neurons (rapidly accommodating: vMGB: 89%, dMGB: 64%), including a subpopulation of neurons that fired at resting membrane potential. Neurons in the vMGB are primarily responsible for relaying primary auditory input. Dorsal MGB neurons relay converging multimodal input. A comparative analysis with the primary auditory neurons, the Type I and Type II spiral ganglion neurons, reveals a similar pattern. Type I neurons relay primary auditory input and exhibit short first spike latencies and rise time constants. The Type II neurons relay converging input from many sources, while possessing significantly slower response properties and a greater subpopulation of slowly accommodating neurons. Hence, accommodation, first spike latency, and rise time constant are suggested to be a reflection of the amount of input that must be integrated before an action potential can be fired. More converging input correlates to slower accommodation, a longer first spike latency and rise time. Conversely, a greater capacity to derive discrete input is associated with rapid accommodation, along with a short first spike latency and rise time.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute an important class of integral membrane proteins that are involved in several signaling pathways. About 50% of the currently available drugs are targeted against these receptors and high-resolution structures of these receptors will be of immense importance from the perspective of designing specific and potent drugs. However, structure determination of these receptors and of membrane proteins in general, has been a very challenging task till date. A major limitation in the structure determination of these proteins is that they are present in minute amounts in the native tissues and therefore, they must be produced heterologously. Additionally, crystallization of GPCRs is difficult owing to their flexible nature and limited hydrophilic surface area available for crystal contacts. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis work is two fold, first, to address the problem of GPCR crystallization by using a fusion protein complex approach and second, to tailor Rhodobacter sphaeroides as an expression system for the heterologous production of GPCRs. In the first approach, R. sphaeroides was used as an expression system to generate a fusion protein complex of the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) with a GPCR, expecting that such a complex would be easier to crystallize than the receptor alone. The notion behind this approach is that the RC will act as a scaffold in providing surface area to create crystal contacts and at the same time, it will also reduce the flexibility of the receptor, hopefully without perturbing the functionality of the receptor. Based on the computational modelling experiments, two ways to generate a fusion complex were assigned. Long linkers were inserted between the subunits of the RC and the GPCR. The linkers were designed with a possibility of straightforward alteration of their length as they contained a number of restriction enzyme sites. A series of these constructs were designed and expressed in R. sphaeroides deletion strain, which did not possess the chromosomal RC genes. Though most of these fusion constructs could be successfully expressed, as analyzed by western blot, majority of them were not functional in terms of ligand binding of the GPCR component of the fusion complex. Interestingly, one of these constructs, where the M subunit of RC was directly fused to the human angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR), exhibited significant functional expression. Based on saturation binding analysis using [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8-angiotensin II (an AT1aR subtype specific antagonist), an expression level of 40+5 pmol/mg of total membrane protein was calculated. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.3 mg of functional receptor per liter culture and it is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. Additionally, the binding affinity of the recombinant receptor for its endogenous ligand angiotensin II was found to be 1±0.1 nM, which is similar to that observed for the AT1aR in native tissues. More interestingly, the RC part of the fusion complex was structurally assembled in other words, properly folded as judged by the presence of the characteristic peaks at 760 nm, 800 nm and 850 nm by absorption spectroscopy. However, a slight change in the intensity of the peak at 800 nm was observed while comparing the spectra of native RC with that in the fusion protein complex. This slight variation might be due to the change in the protein environment. The fusion protein complex RC-AT1aR was functionally solubilized and purified using a decahistidine tag fused at the c-terminus of the AT1aR. Subsequently, the monodispersity and integrity of the complex was confirmed by size exclusion chromatography, which revealed a homogeneous peak. Additionally, it was also possible to solubilize and purify this complex in the presence of a fluorescein tagged angiotensin II ligand which provides a nice tool to judge the functionality of the AT1aR and integrity of the complex at the same time. The purified RC-AT1aR fusion complex was then subjected to three-dimensional (3-D) crystallization trials and it was possible to obtain reproducible crystals of this complex. The crystals were fluorescent (as the complex was purified in presence of fluorescently labelled angiotensin II) and needle or tetragonal in shape, but produced a powdery diffraction pattern. Further attempts to improve the crystallization condition and to optimize the cryo-conditions are underway. In addition, attempts are also being made to obtain the crystals of this complex with the antagonist (e.g. losartan) bound to the receptor. In view of several limitations in the heterologous expression of GPCRs, as the second part of my Ph.D. thesis, I decided to explore the possibilities of developing a novel expression system based on R. sphaeroides for production of recombinant GPCRs. The notion behind using this host is that lack of inclusion bodies and high concentration of membranes in R. sphaeroides would result in efficient functional overexpression of recombinant membrane proteins. For this purpose, a R. sphaeroides strain, modified by the deletion of the genes encoding the RC and the light harvesting proteins LH1 and LH2, was used. The genes for RC and LHs constitute about 85-90% of total membrane proteins in a R. sphaeroides cell. These membranes are normally housed in special membrane vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes (ICMs) that can fill almost the entire cell volume under certain growth conditions. Synthesis of a heterologous protein under the control of the moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter should be coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour these proteins, thus acting as a natural induction system. Moreover, as most of the native membrane proteins are absent in this deletion strain, heterologously produced protein should not experience a shortage of molecular chaperones for proper folding and insertion. Additionally, the absence of inclusion bodies in this host should enhance the functional and homogenous population of the recombinant proteins. Three human GPCRs, namely the adenosine A2a receptor (A2a), the angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR) and the bradykinin subtype 2 receptor (B2R) were tested for expression and functionality in this system. Two different constructs were used to determine the optimal position and ribosome-binding site (RBS) in the superoperon for the highest expression level. Of these three receptors, the AT1aR and B2R were successfully produced, while the A2aR failed to express, producing green carotenoid free R. sphaeroides mutants, for unknown reasons. For the recombinant B2R, [3H] bradykinin binding analysis revealed a low functional expression level of 0.7-0.8 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to 0.01 mg functional receptor per liter of culture and is not sufficient for large-scale expression of this receptor. However, for the recombinant AT1aR, [125I] iodotyrosyl4Sar1Ile8- angiotensin II binding analysis revealed an expression level of 12±1 pmol/mg of total membrane protein. This expression level corresponds to approximately 0.1 mg functional receptor per liter culture and this is significantly higher than the AT1aR expression in native tissues. This expression system is still in the nascent stages of development and there are several parameters, which are still to be assessed for the optimal use of this system for the production of GPCRs and other membrane proteins. In conclusion, my Ph.D. work presents a novel fusion protein complex based approach for obtaining crystallizable GPCRs and a novel expression system for producing heterologous GPCRs. It was possible, for the first time, to produce a functional RC-GPCR complex that could easily be crystallized, though further finetuning of the system is required. R. sphaeroides based novel expression system was successfully used to produce functional human GPCRs under the control of a moderately strong photosynthetic superoperonic promoter. This expression system represents a naturally induced system where the expression of a heterologous protein is coordinated with the synthesis of new membranes to harbour the recombinant protein. The fusion protein complex approach and the expression system presented here can hopefully be used as a general method to facilitate the expression and crystallization of other membrane proteins.
The development of novel drugs targeting GPCRs is of particular interest since modulation of subfamilies of this receptor class highly influences neurotransmission in the central nervous system. This study has focused on the development of ligands for the dopamine D3 receptor. The receptor belongs to the dopamine D2-like family among the biogenic amine binding GPCRs. The dopamine D3 receptor is involved in neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia and drug addiction. Due to its close structural similarity to the dopamine D2 receptor subtype, it is still a challenge to identify and further optimize new leads. Therefore an in vitro screening assay, which also allows elucidating comprehensive structure-affinity relationships, is required. In this investigation the implementation and evaluation of radioligand binding assays for human dopamine D2S and dopamine D3 receptors and for the related aminergic human histamine H1 receptor stably expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells has been performed. Saturation binding experiments with [³H]spiperone at dopamine D2S and D3 receptors and with [³H]mepyramine at histamine H1 receptors were carried out. The determined equilibrium dissociation constant of radioligands (Kd) and the total number of specific binding sites (Bmax) of the receptor membrane preparations were in good agreement with reference data. Inhibition constants (Ki) of reference ligands obtained in radioligand competition binding experiments at dopamine hD2S, hD3 and histamine H1 receptors validated the reliability and reproducibility of the assay. In order to discriminate agonists from antagonists, a GTP shift assay has been investigated for dopamine D2S and D3 receptors. In competition binding studies at dopamine D2S receptors the high- and low affinity state in the absence of the GTP analogue Gpp(NH)p has been recognized for the agonists pramipexole and the seleno analogue 54. In the presence of Gpp(NH)p a decrease in affinity, referred to as “GTP shift”, has been revealed for agonists at dopamine D2S and D3 receptors. An effect of Gpp(NH)p on dopamine D2S receptor binding has not been observed for the antagonists ST 198 and BP 897, while a reverse “GTP shift” has been noticed at the dopamine D3 receptor. For the development of novel ligands with high affinity and selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors, investigation in refined structure-affinity relationships (SAR) of analogues of the lead BP 897 has been performed. Replacement of the naphthalen-2-carboxamide of BP 897 by aryl amide residues (1 - 4) had a clear influence on affinity binding and selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors. Introduction of the benzo[b]thiophen-2-carboxamide (1) has markedly improved binding with subnanomolar affinity and enhanced selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors. Exchanging the aryl substituted basic alkanamine residue of 1 by a 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety (6) emphasized the benefit of the 4-(2-methoxyphenyl) piperazine residue of BP 897 regarding dopamine D2 and D3 receptor affinities. The change of particular elements of BP 897 and the rearrangement of the amide functionality resulted in inverse amide compounds with new chemical properties. Moderate affinity binding data, as obtained for the isoindol-1-carbonyl compound 11, suggest that inverse amides provide a worthwhile new lead structure with a novel structural scaffold. A hybrid approach combining privileged scaffolds of histamine H1 receptor antagonists and fragments of dopamine D3 receptor-preferring ligands, related to BP 897and analogues has been investigated. Various benzhydrylpiperazine derivatives and related structures have shown moderate to high affinities for dopamine D3 receptors with the impressive enhancement of the cinnamide substituted bamipine-related hybrid 39, exhibiting the highest affinity and selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors. Improved affinity profiles of structural modified histamine H1 receptor antagonists for dopamine D2 and D3 receptors and a refined SAR has been achieved. A SAR of derivatives of the dopamine agonist pramipexole and the related etrabamine has been studied. The propargyl substituted etrabamine derivative 61 demonstrated highest affinity and selectivity. The ligand attracts attention since neuroprotective properties have been reported for the propargyl functionality. Further development resulted in the most promising compound 64, a cinnamide derivative with 4-fluoro substitution on the phenyl ring. Subnanomolar affinity and remarkable selectivity for dopamine D3 receptors has aroused particular interest in this ligand due to its development potential as a radioligand for PET studies. Radioligand binding studies in combination with virtual screening and different classification techniques of chemoinformatic methods resulted in further elucidation of SAR. New leads with novel chemical scaffolds have been found in the bicycle[2.2.1]heptane derivative 95 and the benzhydrylidene substituted pyrrolidindione 112 and can be further optimized by chemical modifications. The outcome of the studies provides the development of various novel high affine and dopamine D3 receptor selective ligands. Modifications of lead structures or application of chemoinformatic tools in combination with radioligand competition binding assays have resulted in new leads with different chemical scaffolds. Furthermore, a comprehensive insight into structure-affinity relationships of ligands at dopamine D3 receptors has been revealed. This refined SAR is valuable to develop more affine and selective drug candidates with a designed pharmacological receptor profile.
1. Halobacillus halophilus akkumuliert zum Ausgleich geringer, extrazellulärer Wasserpotentiale kompatible Solute. Bei Anzuchten in Gegenwart von 0,4 – 1,5 M NaCl wurden Glutamin und Glutamat als die dominierenden kompatiblen Solute identifiziert, während zwischen 2,0 und 3,0 M NaCl Prolin das dominierende Solut darstellt. Außerdem wurde Ectoin als zweites kompatibles Solut gefunden, das spezifisch bei hohen Salzgehalten akumuliert wird. Die Konzentrationen während der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase war jedoch um den Faktor 6 – 7 geringer im Vergleich zu Prolin. 2. Aus Wachstumsexperimenten in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Anionen war bekannt, dass Glutamat, im Gegensatz zu Gluconat und Nitrat, in der Lage ist, das Wachstum von H. halophilus auch in Abwesenheit von Chlorid zu ermöglichen. Um der Frage nachzugehen, ob die wachstumsfördernde Wirkung von unphysiologisch hohen Glutamat-Konzentrationen im Medium auf die Verwendung von Glutamat als kompatiblem Solut in den Zellen zurückzuführen ist, wurden Gesamtsolutepools von Chlorid-, Nitrat-, Gluconat- und Glutamat-gezogenen Zellen gemessen. In NaCl-gezogenen Zellen zeigte sich Glutamat als dominantes Solut, während Prolin und Glutamin einen geringeren Teil am Gesamtpool ausmachten. In Nitrat-gezogenen Zellen betrug der Gesamtpool nur noch 83% und in Gluconat-gezogenen Zellen nur noch 27% im Vergleich zu Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen. Zellen, die mit Glutamat gezogen wurden, zeigten jedoch eine Gesamtkonzentration an Soluten, die ca. 100% über dem Vergleichswert aus Chlorid-gezogenen Zellen lag. Die Konzentration an Glutamin in den Zellen stieg dabei um 168%, die Konzentration an Glutamat sogar um 299%. Die Prolinkonzentration verringerte sich um 32%. Diese Daten belegen, dass der wachstumsstimulierende Effekt von Glutamat auf die Verwendung als kompatibles Solut zurückzuführen ist. 3. Zur Untersuchung der molekularen Grundlage der Salzadaptation sowie der Abhängigkeit von Chlorid in H. halophilus wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Gruppe von Prof. D. Oesterhelt (MPI für Biochemie, Martinsried) die Sequenzierung des Genoms begonnen. Das Projekt ist zur Zeit noch nicht abgeschlossen und befindet sich in der „Lückenschluß-Phase“. Die bisherigen Sequenzdaten konnten dennoch für die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen Untersuchungen herangezogen werden. Das Genom besitzt eine Größe von ca. 4,1 Mbp mit einem ungefähren GC-Gehalt von 40%. Außerdem wurden 2 Plasmide identifiziert mit einer Größe von 16047 und 3329 bp. 4. Die Schlüsselgene bekannter Biosynthesewege für Glutamin und Glutamat konnten identifiziert werden. Darunter befinden sich zwei Isogene für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase (gdh1 und gdh2), ein Gen für die große Untereinheit einer Glutamatsynthase (gltA), zwei Gene für die kleine Untereinheit einer Glutamat-Synthase (gltB1 und gltB2) und zwei Isogene für eine Glutaminsynthetase (glnA1 und glnA2). glnA1 befindet sich in einem Cluster zusammen mit einem Gen, das für einen Regulator kodiert (glnR), wie er auch aus B. subtilis bekannt ist. Über reverse Transkription von mRNA und anschließender PCR-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl gltA/gltB1 als auch glnA1/glnR in einem Operon organisiert sind. 5. Wurde die Transkriptmenge der in Punkt 4 erwähnten Biosynthesegene in Zellen quantifiziert, die in Gegenwart unterschiedlicher Salzkonzentrationen (0,4 – 3,0 M NaCl) gezogen wurden, so zeigte sich keine Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration für die Gene gltA, glnA1 und gdh1. Über die Transkriptmengen von gdh2 ließ sich keine abschließende Aussage treffen, da die gefundenen Transkriptmengen sehr gering waren und daher zu sehr großen Varianzen bei der Quantifizierung führten. Eine klare Abhängigkeit der Transkriptmenge von der im Medium zugesetzten Salzkonzentration konnte für glnA2 gezeigt werden. Die glnA2 mRNA-Menge stieg dabei mit steigender Salzkonzentration an und erreichte bei 1,5 – 2.0 M NaCl ein Maximum. Bei diesen Salzkonzentrationen war die Menge an mRNA ca. 4 mal höher als der Vergleichswert bei 0,4 M NaCl. Bei höhern Salzkonzentrationen sank die Menge an Transkript wieder leicht und war dann ca. nur noch 3 mal so hoch wie bei 0,4 M NaCl. 6. Die zelluläre Konzentration der glnA2-Transkripte in Abhängigkeit unterschiedlicher Anionen im Anzuchtmedium wurde untersucht. Die Quantifizierung der glnA2–mRNA ergab eine 2 mal höhere Transkriptmenge in Gegenwart von Chlorid verglichen mit Nitrat oder Gluconat. 7. Es wurde nach Enzymaktivitäten der bekannten Schlüsselenzyme im Glutamat und Glutamin-Biosyntheseweg gesucht. Eine Glutamatdehydrogenase und eine Glutamatsynthase – Aktivität konnte nicht oder nur in vernachlässigbarem Maße nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu konnt eine Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität eindeutig belegt werden. Diese Aktivität erwies sich abhängig von der Art und der Konzentration des angebotenen Anions im Medium. Maximale Aktivitäten wurden mit NaCl in einer Konzentration von 2,5 – 3,0 M erreicht. Interessanterweise erwies sich die Glutaminsynthetase – Aktivität auch abhängig von der Art des im Testpuffers verwendeten Anions. Hier zeigte sich eine deutliche Stimulierung der Aktivität durch das Anion Chlorid. [Die für diesen Punkt zugrunde liegenden Daten wurden im Rahmen einer von mir mitbetreuten Diplomarbeit von Jasmin F. Sydow erhoben und sind aus Gründen der vollständigen Darstellung des Projektverlaufes mitaufgeführt!] 8. Wie im Punkt 1 dargelegt, wird Prolin vor allem bei hohen Salzkonzentrationen in H. halophilus - Zellen akkumuliert. Neben der Abhängigkeit von der Salzkonzentration wurde außerdem die Abhängigkeit von der Wachstumsphase untersucht. Die Analyse der Prolinkonzentrationen während verschiedener Wachstumsphasen in Kulturen, die bei 1,0 bzw. 2,5 M NaCl angezogen wurden, zeigte, (i) dass die Prolinkonzentration während der frühen exponentiellen Phase ca. 2,5-fach erhöht war im Vergleich zu Niedrigsalz-Zellen, (ii) dass die Prolinkonzentration beim Übergang von der frühen in die späte exponentielle Phase dramatisch abnahm (um 64% bei 2,5 M NaCl) und dass (iii) in der stationären Phase Prolin praktisch nicht mehr nachzuweisen war. 9. Die Biosynthesegene für die Herstellung von Prolin aus Glutamat konnten im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert werden. Es handelt sich dabei um ein Cluster von 3 Genen, die für eine putative Pyrrolin-5-carboxylatreductase (proH), eine Glutamat-5-kinase (proJ), und eine Glutamat-5-semialdehyd-dehydrogenase (proA) kodieren. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 10. Eine Quantifizierung der Transkriptmengen der Biosynthesegene proH, proJ und proA mittels quantitativer PCR in Zellen, die bei unterschiedlichen NaCl-Konzentrationen gezogen wurden, zeigte einen deutlichen Zusammenhang zwischen der Salinität des Mediums und der Menge an Transkript. Diese war umso höher, je höher die Salinität des Mediums war. Die maximale Transkriptmenge (6-fach) wurde bei einer Salzkonzentration von 2,5 M NaCl erreicht. Bei noch höherer Salzkonzentration sank die Transkriptmenge auf die ca. 5-fache Menge des Kontrollwertes ab. 11. Um die Regulation und Dynamik der Osmoregulation unabhängig vom Wachstum untersuchen zu können, wurde ein Zellsuspensions-System für H. halophilus etabliert, bei dem eine konzentrierte Zellsuspension direkt von geringen auf hohe Salzkonzentrationen überführt wurde und bei dem die Prozesse der Transkription, Translation und Solut-Biosynthese erhalten blieben. Beispielhaft wurde dieses System an der Produktion von Prolin nach einem Salzschock von 0,8 auf 2,0 M NaCl getestet. Es zeigte sich bei der Analyse, dass sich die Transkriptmengen unmittelbar nach dem Salzschock deutlich erhöhten und bereits nach 1,5 Stunden ein Maximum erreicht wurde. Verglichen mit dem Wert zu Beginn des Versuches waren die Transkriptmengen ca. 13-fach erhöht, sanken im weiteren Verlauf jedoch wieder ab und blieben bei einer 4-fachen Transkriptmenge konstant. Mit der Erhöhung der Transkriptmenge ging auch eine Erhöhung der Prolinkonzentration einher, die ein Maximum von ca. 6 μmol/mg Protein nach 6 Stunden erreichte. Auch diese Konzentration verringerte sich im weiteren Verlauf wieder und erreichte nach 20 Stunden den Ausgangswert. 12. Um den Einfluß diverser Anionen bzw. Osmolyte im Medium auf die Produktion von Prolin zu untersuchen, wurden Zellsuspensionen von H. halophilus einer Erhöhung der Osmolarität von 0,8 M auf 2,0 M unterzogen. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass die maximale Akkumulation von Prolin in Anwesenheit von Chlorid am höchsten war. Nitrat und Glutamat führten zu ähnlichen, aber leicht geringeren maximalen Konzentrationen (92 bzw. 83% des Chloridwertes). Gluconat führte noch zu einer Akkumulation von ca. 51%, während die anderen Osmolyte zu keiner Akkumulation führten. Eine Analyse der Transkriptmengen zeigte jedoch ein völlig anderes Bild. Während Chlorid, Nitrat und Gluconat zu vergleichbaren Anstiegen der Transkripmengen führten, war die maximale Transkriptmenge der Glutamatinkubierten Zellen 3-9 mal höher als in Vergleichszellen mit Chlorid. In anschließenden Titrationsexperimenten mit verschiedenen Glutamatkonzentrationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine minimale Konzentration von 0,2 M Glutamat ausreichend ist, um eine 90-fache Steigerung der Transkriptmenge herbeizuführen. 13. Als Antwort auf Hochsalz-Bedingungen akkumuliert H. halophilus neben Prolin auch Ectoin. Die Ectoinkonzentration bei 2,5 M NaCl war ca. 2-3 mal höher als in Zellen, die bei 1,0 M gezogen wurden. Die Bestimmung der intrazellulären Ectoin-Konzentrationen während des Wachstums zeigte außerdem, dass die Produktion von Ectoin wachstumsphasenabhängig ist. Die Konzentration in der stationären Phase war ca. 5-fach höher als in der exponentiellen Phase. Die Entwicklung der Ectoin- Konzentration verhielt sich somit reziprok zur Entwicklung der Prolin-Konzentration während des Wachstums. 14. Es wurde ein Cluster von drei Genen im Genom von H. halophilus identifiziert, deren Genprodukte die Biosynthese von Ectoin aus Aspartatsemialdehyd katalysieren. ectA kodiert dabei für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-Acetyltransferase, ectB für eine putative Diaminobutyrat-2-oxoglutarat-Transaminase und ectC für eine putative Ectoin-Synthase. Mittels reverser Transkription von mRNA und anschließenden PCR-Analysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die drei Gene ein Operon bilden. 15. Die Transkription der ect-Gene war abhängig von der Salinität des Mediums. Ab 2,0 M stieg die Menge an RNA um das 10-fache an und erreichte bei 3,0 M ein Maximum mit der 23,5-fachen Menge. 16. Nach einem osmotischen Schock stieg die Konzentration an ect-mRNA signifikant und erreichte ein Maximum nach 3 - 4 Stunden. Das Maximum wurde somit 1,5 – 2,5 Stunden später erreicht als bei anderen Genen der Solute-Biosynthese wie etwa gdh1, das für eine Glutamatdehydrogenase, glnA2, das für eine Glutamin-Synthetase oder proH, das für eine Pyrrolin-5-Carboxylase kodiert. Die maximal erreichten Wert lagen 13-fach (ectA), 6,5-fach (ectB) und 3-fach (ectC) über dem Wert vor dem Salzschock. Gegen EctC wurden polyklonale Antikörper generiert. Western-Blot Analysen mit diesem Antikörper zeigten, dass die EctC-Menge nach 4 Stunden um das 2,5-fache stieg, dann aber wieder abfiel auf das 1,6 – 1,7-fache des Ausgangswertes. Der Rückgang an EctC fand keine Entsprechung in der gemessenen Ectoin-Konzentration, welche über einen Zeitraum von 18 Stunden kontinuierlich anstieg. Die maximale Konzentration nach 18 Stunden betrug das ca. 6,3-fache des Ausgangswertes. 17. Wurden H. halophilus Zellen mit anderen Osmolyten außer NaCl geschockt, so ergab sich folgendes Bild der Regulation der Ectoin-Biosynthese: (i) die Transkription der ect-Gene zeigte keine Chlorid-abhängige Regulation. Die maximale Transkriptmenge wurde in Gegenwart von Nitrat erreicht, wohingegen Gluconat zu vergleichbachen mRNA-Mengen führte wie Chlorid. Glutamat führte nur zu schwacher Stimulierung der Transkription. (ii) auf Ebene der Proteinmenge war zu sehen, dass die Menge an EctC nach osmotischem Schock vergleichbar war in Zellen, die mit Chlorid oder Nitrat inkubiert wurden. Gluconat führte nur zu einer 40%-igen Zunahme während andere Osmolyte nahezu wirkungslos auf die Menge an EctC blieben. (iii) die höchste Akkumulation an Ectoin nach einer plötzlichen Erhöhung der Osmolarität wurde erreicht mit Chlorid (6-fache Zunahme) gefolgt von Nitrat (5,6-fache Zunahme). Gluconat führte lediglich zu einer 3,3-fachen und Glutamat nur noch zu einer 2-fachen Steigerung der Ectoinkonzentration. Glutamat hat somit ähnliche Effekte wie Tartrat, Saccharose oder Sulfat. Succinat führte zu keiner Akkumulation und Glycin sogar zu einer deutlichen Abnahme. Die Produktion von Ectoin ist somit hauptsächlich abhängig vom Anion/Osmolyt und nur untergeordnet von der Osmolarität.
The formation and maintenance of a defined three-dimensional structure is a prerequisite for most proteins in order to fulfill their function in the native context. However, there are proteins, which are intrinsically unstructured and thus natively unfolded. In addition, the misfolding and aggregation of many proteins can lead to severe diseases. The investigation of non-native states of proteins significantly contributes to the understanding of protein folding and misfolding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the only known technique that can provide information on structure and dynamics of non-native states of proteins at atomic resolution. Unfolded and non-native states of proteins have to be treated as ensembles of rapidly interconverting conformers and their observed properties are ensemble and time averaged. In this thesis, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and mutants thereof have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The reduction of its four disulfide bridges and the successive methylation of the cysteine residues renders HEWL permanently non-native (‘HEWL-SMe’). Alternatively, the exchange of the eight cysteines for alanines results in very similar states (‘all-Ala-HEWL’). Under these conditions, HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL do not resemble random coil conformations, but exhibit residual secondary and tertiary structure. The presence of hydrophobic clusters and long-range interactions around the proteins six tryptophan residues and the modulation of these properties by single-point mutants has been observed. For the NMR spectroscopic investigation, HEWL has been isotopically labelled in E. coli by expression into inclusion bodies. After purification, the 1HN, 15NH, 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, 13C’, 1Halpha and 1Hbeta resonances of HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL have been assigned almost completely using three-dimensional NMR experiments. The analysis of secondary chemical shifts revealed regions in the proteins sequence — particularly around the six tryptophan residues—with significantly populated alpha-helix like conformations. In order to further elucidate the influence of the tryptophan side chains, a set of two new pulse sequences has been developed that allowed for the successful assignment of the 13Cg, 15Ne and 1HNe resonances in these side chains. This knowledge was eventually exploited in the interpretation of two-dimensional 15N-1H photo-CIDNP spectra, which revealed a differential solvent accessibility of the tryptophan residues in all-Ala-HEWL but not in the single point mutant W62G-all-Ala-HEWL. In addition, heteronuclear R2 relaxation rates have been determined for the indole 15Ne nuclei of all-Ala-HEWL and W62G. While in the wild-type like all-Ala-HEWL, the rates are different among the six tryptophan residues, in W62G they are more uniform. Together with relaxation data from the amide backbone, these results indicate the significant destabilization of the hydrophobic clusters in the absence of W62. In contrast, in the W108G mutant the profile of the R2 relaxation rates was not found to be significantly altered. No evidence was found by R1rho relaxation rates and relaxation dispersion measurements for conformational exchange on slower (micro- to millisecond) timescales. Residual dipolar couplings have been determined for non-native HEWL in order to retrieve structural information of these states. The differences of the W62G and the wild-type like non-native HEWL is also picked up in NH-RDCs of these proteins aligned in polyacrylamide gels. Significant positive RDCs are observed in the regions of the hydrophobic clusters in all-Ala-HEWL, but to a much lesser degree in W62G. So far, all attempts to simulate RDCs from generated non-native ensembles failed even when including long-range contacts or specific phi/psi backbone angle propensities. However, the measured RDCs can be used to cross-validate structural ensembles of non-native HEWL generated by molecular dynamics simulations that are based on restraints from the other experimental data, such as the differential solvent accessibilities from the photo-CIDNP experiments and the data on the hydrophobic clustering gained from the combined mutational and relaxation studies. Finally, non-native HEWL has been investigated for the first time using two-dimensional NMR in organic solvents, which are able to induce secondary structures and ultimately lead to amyloid formation. Under these conditions severe line broadening was observed, which was attributed to exchange between different — mostly a-helical— conformations. In summary, in this thesis methods have been developed, optimized and successfully applied for the structural and dynamical characterization of non-native states of proteins and the effect of single-point mutants on the properties of such ensembles has been investigated. Data has been gained that can considerably contribute to the further elucidation of the nature of non-native states of HEWL by molecular dynamics simulations.
Analysis of coding principles in the olfactory system and their application in cheminformatics
(2007)
Unser Geruchssinn vermittelt uns die Wahrnehmung der chemischen Welt. Im Laufe der Evolution haben sich in unserem olfaktorischen System Mechanismen entwickelt, die wahrscheinlich optimal auf die Erfüllung dieser Aufgabe angepasst sind. Die Analyse dieser Verarbeitungsstrategien verspricht Einblicke in effiziente Algorithmen für die Kodierung und Verarbeitung chemischer Information, deren Entwicklung und Anwendung dem Kern der Chemieinformatik entspricht. In dieser Arbeit nähern wir uns der Entschlüsselung dieser Mechanismen durch die rechnerische Modellierung von funktionellen Einheiten des olfaktorischen Systems. Hierbei verfolgten wir einen interdisziplinären Ansatz, der die Gebiete der Chemie, der Neurobiologie und des maschinellen Lernens mit einbezieht.
All living organisms exhibit daily fluctuations in biochemical, physiological and behavioural parameters driven by endogenous oscillators, residing in the organism itself. In mammals, the core circadian oscillator is located in the paired suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Circadian rhythm generation in the SCN depends upon the expression of clock genes interacting in positive and negative transcriptional/translational feedback loops. The SCN governs the timing of peripheral circadian oscillators by neuronal pathways and by neuroendocrine mechanisms. An important neuroendocrine hand of the core circadian oscillator is melatonin, which is produced in and secreted from the pineal gland night by night. The adenohypophysis represents a peripheral circadian oscillator and the secretion of one of its hormones, prolactin, is known to be regulated by melatonin. The aim of the present study was to analyze a putative influence of melatonin on the activity state and diurnal variations of identified cell types in the hypophysis. Particular attention was paid to lactotroph, gonadotroph and pars intermedia cells. Experiments were performed with young male mice of different strains: melatonin-proficient C3H, melatonin-deficient C57BL, melatonin-proficient C3H with targeted deletions of the Mel1a receptor (MelaaBB), Mel1b receptor (MelAAbb) or both receptors (Melaabb). Cells producing prolactin (PRL), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) were immunocytochemically identified and the presence of phosphorylated CREB protein (pCREB) and clock gene protein PER1 was demonstrated by double immunolabeling at different time points during the light/dark cycle in melatonin deficient, melatonin proficient and melatonin receptor knockout mice. Melatonin influence on Prl mRNA levels was investigated by means of in situ hybridization. At night the percentage of lactotroph cells showing a positive nuclear pCREB- and PER1-immunoreaction is significantly smaller in C57BL than in C3H mice. In both mouse strains, the percentage of pCREB –immunoreactive cells is minimal in the early morning and gradually increases to reach a maximum in the late night. PER1 levels show a parallel temporal variation in C3H, but in C57BL, they are drastically reduced in the early afternoon. The percentage of FSH-immunoreactive cells showing pCREB immunoreaction was significantly lower in the melatonin-deficient C57Bl mice than in the melatonin-proficient C3H mice during the second part of the day and during the night. In each strain, the percentage of FSH-immunoreactive cells was lowest at the early morning and gradually increases until the maximum at late night. In wild type (MelAABB) and MelAAbb mice the percentage of lactotroph cells with nuclear pCREB immunoreactions varied significantly over 24 h period, whereas in MelaaBB and Melaabb mice no significant differences were found between the five time points analyzed. The number of Prl mRNA expressing cells was significantly higher in MelaaBB and MelAAbb than in their wild type (MelAABB) littermates. pCREB levels in the pars intermedia did not show rhythmic variation in wild type or Melaabb animals, but wild type mice had higher pCREB levels than Melaabb. The observation that, during darkness, the percentage of lactotroph cells with nuclear pCREB immunoreaction is significantly higher in C3H than in C57BL mice suggests the existence of a distinct cell population that is under the control of melatonin-dependent intrapituitary signaling. Results with melatonin receptor knockout mice indicate that Mel1a and Mel1b melatonin receptors are involved in the control of the activity state of lactotroph cells, but to a differing degree. Analysis of cells expressing Prl mRNA showed that inhibitory action on the Prl expression is mostly mediated through the Mel1a receptor. The significant difference between pCREB immunoreaction in gonadotroph cells of C3H and C57BL mice might suggest that, like lactotrophes, FSH cells represent a heterogeneous population and only a subpopulation is under control of melatonin signaling. The present study is first to show that melatonin signaling also affects pCREB levels in pars intermedia of mice.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors and possess a signature motif of seven transmembrane helices. The endothelin B (ETB) receptor is a member of rhodopsin like GPCR family. It plays an important role in vasodilation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of G-protein coupled receptors in general would significantly add to our understanding of their molecular mechanisms and would be useful in the search for new specific drugs. However, three-dimensional structural analysis will require milligram quantities of pure and homogeneous protein. This dissertation is a study of the production, biochemical characterization and preliminary structural studies of the human ETB G-protein coupled receptor. The present work aimed at elucidating the structure and mechanistic details of function of the receptor by using a combination of X-ray crystallographic and NMR methods for collecting structural data. To obtain homogenous and monodisperse receptor protein preparation for structural and functional studies, we implemented the baculovirus expression system for the production of ETB receptor for the present work. The two step affinity purification ensured capture of full-length receptor. Silver stained SDS-PAGE of the purified receptor-ligand complex indicated greater than 90% protein purity. Based on previous reports, we used the high affinity ligand (endothelin -1) binding to the receptor for co-crystallization of receptor-ligand complex by locking the receptor in the activated conformation. As a prerequisite for 3D crystallization trials, the stability of the detergent solubilized receptor-ligand complex was assessed with respect to pH, temperature and time. Receptor-ligand complex did not show any degradation and aggregation over 6 days at 4°C and 18°C. Interestingly, change of pH suggested that receptor-ligand complex is unstable at lower pH due to possible charge induced conformational changes. In our work, we introduced the idea of using fluorophore labeled ligand for simple visual recognition of the receptor-ligand complex during purification and crystallization. On the other hand, we alternatively used biotinylated endothelin-1 to produce an adequate amount of ligand bound receptor complex, thus ensuring homogeneity of the purified complex for use in structural studies. Thus far, preliminary crystals have been obtained for both the unlabelled ET-1 and fluorophore labeled ET-1 complexed with ETB receptor. Moreover, we performed the systematic investigation of the protein/peptide binding partner for the receptor-ligand complex with the chief aims of stabilizing structure and increasing the possibilities of 3D-crystal contacts. Thus subsequent to formation of receptor-ligand complex, the additional in vitro formation of a ternary arrestin-receptor-ligand complex was also attempted for use in structural studies. We successfully demonstrated that arrestin mutant (R169E) forms a tight complex with ETB receptor regardless of its phosphorylation state. A second approach to get insight into the ETB receptor ligand binding site relied on the use of spin isotope labeled ET-1 ligand peptide by employing solid state MAS NMR method. Preliminary data provided compelling evidence that the C-terminal region of the peptide is immobilized in an ordered environment and presumably bound to the receptor. This indicates that the approach is feasible, although there are difficulties in sample preparation for further spectral measurements and data collection which are currently being discussed in ongoing investigations. At this point of our research work, we initiated a collaborative effort to obtain high yields of pure, active receptor without post translational modifications, from an E. coli cell lysate based in vitro expression system. We successfully optimized the production of homogenous and monodisperse endothelin B receptor in mg amounts. Thus this could potentially provide an alternative source of high quality receptor production in large quantities for immediate crystallization trials. Thus we hope that the results from these investigations can be applied in a more general sense to the production and crystallization of other G protein-coupled receptors.
The search for a modification of hadron properties inside nuclear matter at normal and/or high temperature and density is one of the more interesting issues of modern nuclear physics. Dilepton experiments, by providing interesting results, give insight into the properties of strong interaction and the nature of hadron mass generation. One of these research tools is the HADES spectrometer. HADES is a high acceptance dilepton spectrometer installed at the heavy-ion synchrotron (SIS) at GSI, Darmstadt. The main physics motivation of HADES is the measurement of e+e- pairs in the invariant-mass range up to 1 GeV/c2 in pion- and proton-induced reactions, as well as in heavy-ion collisions. The goal is to investigate the properties of the vector mesons rho, omega and of other hadrons reconstructed from e+e- decay pairs. Dileptons are penetrating probes allowing to study the in-medium properties of hadrons. However, the measurement of such dilepton pairs is difficult because of a very large background from other processes in which leptons are created. This thesis presents the analysis of the data provided by the first physic run done with the HADES spectrometer. For the first time e+e- pairs produced in C+C collisions at an incident energy of 2 GeV per nucleon have been collected with sufficient statistics. This experiment is of particular importance since it allows to address the puzzling pair excess measured by the former DLS experiment at 1.04 AGeV. The thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter presents the physics case which is addressed in the work. In the second chapter the HADES spectrometer is introduced with the characteristic of specific detectors which are part of the spectrometer. Chapter three focusses on the issue of charged-particle identification. The fourth chapter discusses the reconstruction of the di-electron spectra in C+C collisions. In this part of the thesis a comparison with theoretical models is included as well. The conclusion and final remarks are given in chapter five.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), also referred to as marrow stromal cells, maintain the capacity to differentiate into multiple mesenchymal lineages such as osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, myoblasts, stromal, neural and endothelial cells. The use of autologous MSC has generated widespread interest due to their developing application in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering in orthopedic surgery. They have become an indispensable cell source for successful implementation in many bone reconstruction procedures. In addition to their multipotency and selfrenewal capacity, they are easily harvested, have demonstrated a homing mechanism and can be efficiently expanded in vitro, thus providing a safe and costefficient tissue replacement for patients with skeletal injury or disease. Little information is currently available concerning donor characteristics for tissue engineering growth of osseous tissue. This study examines the influences of such donor characteristics, including injury pattern, gender, age, and site of harvest on the quantity, quality and osteogenic differentiation of MSC. The goal is to evaluate whether certain patient groups are practically suitable for an ex vivo expansion and therapeutic reimplantation of MSC. The effect of injury pattern on the reservoir and proliferative capacity of MSC in human bone marrow is clearly demonstrated in this analysis. Age and gender were also shown to influence MSC number and proliferation, as in previous studies. A total of 53 participants (46 patients and 7 healthy volunteers ranging from 18 to 64 years of age), who were scheduled to undergo operative procedures on the pelvis, vertebrae, tibia or hip as well as cancellous bone autografts for reconstruction of various bone defects, were included in the study. Participants were divided into 4 groups for each gender: single fracture, multiple trauma, atrophic nonunion and healthy volunteers. A minimum of 6 ml bone marrow samples were aspirated intraoperatively and processed immediately according to protocol. Following cultivation and expansion for 14 days, the cells were then stained for the colony forming unit-fibroblast (CFU-F) assay and each culture flask was photographed, digitized and converted to an 8 bit grey level TIF-format. Using the digitized CFU-F assay, the mean colony number, mean colony area and mean cell number per microscopic field of view (cell density) could be determined. In addition, confirmation of MSC phenotype was established using fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). MSC potential for osteogenic differentiation was quantified by von Kossa, alkaline phosphatase and alizarin staining. Furthermore, serum from a total of 39 randomly chosen participants was collected and tested for hormone levels of 17β-estradiol, testosterone and prolactin as well as the cytokine interleukin-6. These analyses demonstrate several significant trauma-related modifications in MSC reservoir and proliferation, in both male and female patients. In multiple trauma patients, the highest MSC frequency was found, independent of gender and age. Proliferative capacity was also highest in male multiple trauma patients. In the case of atrophic nonunion, the lowest MSC reservoir was detected, independent of gender. Furthermore, MSC frequency in male patients was significantly higher than in female, although analyses of hormone and interleukin-6 levels provided no correlation. Agerelated changes in MSC reservoir could also be observed, whereas the proliferative capacity produced only a tendency toward decreasing values with increasing age. Concerning the site of cell harvest, MSC isolated from the proximal extremity of the tibia, greater trochanter and vertebral body did not proliferate sufficiently enough to be included in statistical analysis, supporting the use of the iliac crest for efficient expansion of MSC. This data suggests the interaction of yet to be identified processes in bone marrow in multiple trauma situations which stimulate the activation and mobilization of MSC. Moreover, in the case of atrophic nonunion, the concentration in bone marrow is depleted and the absence of systemic stimulation present in multiple trauma results in reduced activation of proliferative capacity. Such patients, with severe injury or atrophic nonunion, represent a group of patients with an especially acute necessity for effective and successful bone reconstruction. This data can be used to determine the applicability of MSC from various patient groups for osseous tissue replacement procedures. Especially in such medically challenging situations, further research is essential not only to delineate the factors involved in MSC regulation but also to develop methods to stimulate MSC expansion and proliferation.
First milestone of this Ph.D. thesis was the successful extension of conventional NTA/His-tag technique to self-assembling, multivalent chelator thiols for high-affinity recognition as well as stable and uniform immobilization of His-tagged proteins on chip surfaces. Bis-NTA was linked via an oligoethylene glycol to alkyl thiols by an efficient modular synthesis strategy yielding a novel, multivalent compound for formation of mixed SAMs with anti-adsorptive matrix thiols on gold. Multivalent chelator chips allow a specific, high-affinity, reversible, long-term immobilization of His-tagged proteins. In AFM studies reversibility of the specific protein immobilization process was visualized at single molecule level. The entire control over the orientation of the immobilized protein promotes this chip surface to an optimal platform for studies focusing on research targets at single molecule level and nanobiotechnology. Based on the constructed protein chip platform above and a novel AFM mode (contact oscillation mode, COM) – developed during the current Ph.D. work – protein nanolithography under physiological conditions enabling fabrication of active biomolecular patterns in countless variety has been established. Reversible COM-mediated nanostructuring is exceptionally suitable for multiplexed patterning of protein assemblies in situ. The first selfassembled protein layer acts as a biocompatible and ductile patterning material. Immobilized proteins can be replaced by the AFM tip applying COM, and the generated structures can be erased and refilled with different proteins, which are immobilized in a uniform and functional manner. Multi-protein arrays can be systematically fabricated by iterative erase-and-write processes, and employed for protein-protein interaction analysis. Fabrication of two-dimensionally arranged nanocatalytic centres with biological activity will establish a versatile tool for nanobiotechnology. As an alternative chip fabrication approach, the combined application of methodologies from surface chemistry, semiconductor technology, and chemical biology demonstrated successfully how pre-patterned templates for micro- and nanoarrays for protein chips are fabricated. The surface physical, as well the biophysical experiments, proved the functionality of this technology. The promises of such process technology are fast and economic fabrication of ready-to-use nanostructured biochips at industrial scale. Membrane proteins are complicated in handling and hence require sophisticated solutions for chip technological application. A silicon-on-insulator (SOI) chip substrate with microcavities and nanopores was employed for first technological investigation to construct a protein chip suitable for membrane proteins. The formation of an artificial lipid bilayer using vesicle fusion on oxidized SOI cavity substrates was verified by CLSM. Future AFM experiments will give further insights into the chip architecture and topography. This will provide last evidence of the sealing of the cavity by the lipid bilayer. Transmembrane proteins will be employed for reconstitution experiments on this membrane protein chip platform. Highly integrated microdevices will find application in basic biomedical and pharmaceutical research, whereas robust and portable point-of-care devices will be used in clinical settings.
Membrane proteins play vital role in a variety of cellular processes, such as signal transduction, transport and recognition. In turn they are involved in numerous human diseases and currently represent one of the most prevalent drug targets. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms mediated by membrane proteins requires information about their structures at near-atomic resolution, although structural studies of membrane proteins remain behind those of soluble proteins. A bottleneck in the study of membrane proteins resides in the difficulties that are encountered during their high-level production in cell based systems. However, many toxic effects attributed to the over production of membrane proteins are eliminated by cell-free expression, as viable host cells are no longer required. Therefore, the objective of this study was to obtain adequate amounts of selected membrane transport proteins for their structural studies using a cell-free expression system. For the establishment of the cell-free system for membrane proteins, the transporters YbgR and YiiP from Salmonella typhimurium LT2, PF0558 and PF1373 from Pyrococcus furiosus, from the cation diffusion family (CDF), BetP from Corynebacterium glutamicum from the betaine/carnitine/choline transporter (BCCT) family and Aq-2030 from Aquifex aeolicus VF5 from the monovalent cation/proton antiporter-2 (CPA2) family were selected. An Escherichia coli S-30 extract based cellfree system was established by generating the best expression constructs of the target proteins, preparing T7 RNA polymerase and an S-30 extract with high translation efficiency. The functionality of the S-30 extract was shown by the cell-free expression of correctly folded Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Essential factors of the cell-free system such as the Mg2+ concentration, the bacterial S-30 extract proportion in the reaction mixture and the time-course of cell-free reactions have been optimized. For the cell-free production of membrane proteins in soluble form, the possibility to supplement cell-free reactions with detergents was explored. A wide range of non-ionic or zwitterionic detergents, were found to be compatible with cell-free synthesis, while ionic detergents and non-ionic detergents at high concentrations had an inhibitory effect. Moreover, high concentrations of polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers (Brij) detergents were found to have enhancing effect on the production levels as well as on the solubility of cell-free produced proteins. As membrane proteins tend to misfold and aggregate in a membrane-free translation system, the possibility to supplement the cell-free reactions with inner membrane vesicles (IMVs) to obtain correctly folded target transport proteins was explored. All the target proteins were successfully produced in the batch cell-free reactions and were found to be incorporated in the IMVs. A continuous exchange cell-free (CECF) system was established, where consumable substrates (amino acids, nucleotides and energy regenerating compounds) were supplied to the cell-free reaction mixture through a dialysis membrane, which in consequence resulted in high-level production of target proteins compared to the batch system. The osmosensing and osmoregulated sodium-coupled symporter BetP from C. glutamicum was chosen for the large scale production in CECF set-up. The protein is easily produced in E. coli and is functional as assayed by its transport activity, after purification and reconstitution in liposomes. It is therefore possible to compare in-vivo and cell-free production. High-level cell-free production of BetP was achieved in CECF mode in different forms: (i) as precipitate, (ii) as soluble form in detergent, and (iii) incorporated in IMVs. Cell-free production of BetP resulted in the yield of about 0.5 mg of purified BetP from 1 ml of CECF reaction. The yield of purified BetP was increased to 1.6 fold by addition of 1% polyoxyethylene-(20)-cetyl-ether (Brij58) detergent in the reaction mixture. Moreover, the high level cell-free production of BetP (0.5 mg purified BetP/ml reaction mixture) incorporated in IMVs was shown for the first time in this work.However, it was observed that oligomerization of BetP was not efficient in the cell-free system. Factors that can promote the folding of membrane proteins such as lipids and chaperones were investigated. Addition of lipids and molecular chaperone GroE facilitated correct folding of BetP resulting in increased yield and stability of cell-free produced BetP. The results obtained indicate that most of the cell-free produced BetP exists in functional oligomeric form. The possibility of obtaining milligram amounts of BetP, a 12 trans-membrane protein from the cell-free reactions holds promise for structural and functional studies of other membrane proteins. In any case, the strategies adapted in this study should prove extremely valuable for the production of membrane proteins in the E. coli cell-free expression system.
The removal of apoptotic cells (AC) can be regarded as an integral component of the program to terminate inflammation. Clearance of AC by professional phagocytes such as macrophages induces an anti-inflammatory phenotype in the latter ones. Anti-inflammatory or M2 polarization is also observed in macrophages infiltrating certain human tumors. These tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) contribute actively to tumor progression by promoting immune evasion, angiogenesis and tumor cell survival. The aim of my Ph.D. thesis was to approach the mechanisms as well as the characteristics of macrophage phenotype alterations induced by AC, and to elucidate a possible connection between tumor cell apoptosis and TAM generation. In the first part of my studies, I investigated the impact of AC on macrophage viability. I could show that macrophage survival against pro-apoptotic agents increased after the interaction with AC. Protection of macrophages against cell death required activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and Ca2+ signaling, and correlated with Bcl-XL and Bcl-2 up-regulation as well as Ser136-Bad phosphorylation. Unexpectedly, neither phagocytosis nor binding of apoptotic debris to the phagocyte was necessary to induce protection. AC released the bioactive lipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), dependent on sphingosine kinase (SphK) 2, as a survival messenger. These data indicated an active role of AC in preventing cell destruction in their neighborhood. My next aim was to elucidate the mechanism of S1P production by AC. During cell death, SphK 2 was cleaved at its N-terminus by caspase-1. Thereupon, the truncated but enzymatically active fragment of SphK 2 was released from cells. This release was coupled to phosphatidylserine exposure, a hallmark of apoptosis and a crucial signal for the phagocyte/apoptotic cell interaction. Thus, I observed a link between common signaling events during apoptosis and the extracellular production of S1P, which is known to affect immune cell attraction and polarization as well as angiogenesis in cancer. In the next part of my studies, I asked for a correlation between tumor cell apoptosis and TAM polarization. During co-culture of human macrophages with human breast cancer carcinoma cells (MCF-7), the latter ones were killed, while macrophages acquired an alternatively activated phenotype. This was characterized by decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α; and interleukin (IL)-12-p70 production, but increased formation of IL-8 and IL-10. Alternative macrophage activation required tumor cell death, because a co-culture with apoptosis-resistant colon carcinoma cells (RKO) or Bcl-2-overexpressing MCF-7 cells failed to induce phenotype alterations. These phenotype alterations were also achieved with conditioned media from apoptotic tumor cells, which again argued for a soluble factor being involved. Knock-down of SphK2, but not SphK1, to attenuate S1P formation in MCF-7 cells, repressed the otherwise observed alternative macrophage polarization during co-culture. Furthermore, macrophage polarization achieved by tumor cell apoptosis or substitution of authentic S1P was characterized by suppression of pro-inflammatory nuclear factor (NF)-κB DNA binding. These findings suggested that tumor cell apoptosis-derived S1P contributes to the macrophage polarization present in human tumors. To validate these in vitro data, I used an in vivo tumor model to clarify the relevance of SphK2 and S1P in tumor development. The growth of, as well as blood vessel infiltration into SphK2 knock-down MCF-7 (MCF-7-siSphK2) xenografts in nude mice was markedly decreased in comparison to control MCF-7 xenografts. In contrast, macrophage infiltration was similar or even more pronounced. These data provided a first hint for an in vivo role of SphK2-derived S1P in macrophage polarization associated with tumor promotion. In summary, these data indicate a new mechanism how AC themselves shape macrophage polarization, which results in the termination of inflammatory responses and macrophage survival. Furthermore, my studies present evidence that human tumors may utilize this mechanism to foster growth via increased angiogenesis.
Das genetische Material der Zellen besteht aus Molekülketten der Desoxyribonukleinsäure (DNA), die ein Träger der Erbinformation ist. In normalen Körperzellen wird die Erbinformation der DNA in eine andere Molekülkette, die sogenannte Ribonukleinsäure (RNA), übersetzt. Die RNA reguliert die Bildung von neuem Protein in der Zelle. Dass die RNA nicht bloß ein „Stempel“ ist, der die Informationen der DNA weitervermittelt, darin sind sich die Experten heute einig. RNA-Moleküle können Informationen speichern, katalytische Aktivitäten entfalten, sich perfekt tarnen, und sie regulieren auch als Produkt ihre eigene Synthese. Manche Viren enthalten ebenfalls RNA (oder DNA) und können so den Produktionsapparat der Zelle täuschen. Erkenntnisse über die Wechselwirkung dieser RNA mit natürlichen und synthetischen Liganden können zur Suche nach potentiellen Wirkstoffen beitragen. Nukleinsäuren sind lineare Biopolymere von grundlegenden Untereinheiten, die Nukleotide genannt werden und aus Adenin (A), Cytosin (C), Guanin (G), Urazil (U), und Thymin (T) zusammengesetzt sind. Sie sind jedoch in der Lage sich zu falten und so eine Doppel-Helixstruktur auszubilden. Diese besteht größtenteils aus den bekannten "Watson-Crick-Basenpaaren" (G-C und A-U oder A-T), die zur Stabilität der Struktur beitragen, sowie aus den weniger stabilen G-U-Paaren. Durch die Wechselwirkung zwischen verschiedenen Sekundärstrukturelementen entstehen Tertiärstrukturelemente, deren Struktur und Dynamik oft nur schwer experimentell zu bestimmen sind. Fortschritte in der RNA-Strukturanalyse wurden durch Röntgenkristallographie und Kernresonanzspektroskopie (NMR) möglich. Durch die Röntgenkristallographie wurden viele RNA-Eigenschaften festgestellt. Allerdings besteht keine Kristallstruktur für alle mögliche Einzelnfaser-RNA-Haarnadeln, weil diese immer dazu neigen, in eine linearen doppelte Faserform zu kristallisieren, die geringe biologische Bedeutung hat. Außerdem wurde mit Hilfe der NMR-Spektroskopie das dynamische Verhalten von RNA, z.B. Entfaltungsprozesse bei ansteigender Temperatur, beobachtet. Jedoch erlauben diese experimentellen Daten oft keine direkte mikroskopische Beschreibung der molekularen Prozesse. Molekulardynamik (MD)-Simulationen von biologischen Systemen ermöglichen es hingegen, diese Prozesse in atomischem Detail zu untersuchen. Die MD-Simulation beschreibt ein molekulares System auf atomarer Ebene mit Hilfe der klassischen Mechanik. Kräfte werden von empirischen Potentialen abgeleitet. Sie liefern zeitabhängige Trajektorien, die sich aus den Newton'schen Bewegungsgleichungen ergeben. Durch verbesserte Computerleistung, bessere Kraftfelder, und neu entwickelte genauere Methoden stimmen heutzutage MD-Simulationen von RNA mit experimentellen Daten immer besser überein. In meiner Doktorarbeit wurden MD-Simulationen durchgeführt um die Dynamik, die Struktur und insbesondere die Stabilität von RNA-Hairpins theoretisch zu beschreiben, um so ein erweitertes Verständnis für die dynamischen Vorgänge zu erhalten. Auch der SFB 579 der Universität Frankfurt beschäftigt sich mit RNA-Systemen. Erforscht wird unter anderem der D-Loop des Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), der Virenmyocarditis verursacht. Die Interpretation dieser experimentellen Daten wird durch MD-Simulation möglich. In dieser Arbeit wurden das GROMACS Software-Paket und das AMBER Kraftfeld verwendet, um das strukturelle, dynamische und thermische Verhalten der RNA-Hairpins mit Hilfe von MD-Simulationen auf atomarer Ebene zu untersuchen. Betrachtet wurden die 14-mer RNA-Hairpins, uCACGg und cUUCGg. Die verfügbaren NMR-Strukturen zeigen, dass das uCACGg-Tetraloop auffallend ähnlich in der gesamten Geometrie und den Wasserstoffbindungen zu der experimentellen Struktur des cUUCGg-Tetraloop ist, obwohl die schließende Basenpaarsequenz der beiden Tetraloops unterschiedlich sind. Trotz beachtlicher struktureller Ähnlichkeit unterscheiden sich allerdings die uCACGg und cUUCGg Tetraloops in Funktionalität und Thermostabilität. Zunächst orientiert sich unser erstes Bemühen an der Frage nach einem guten Modell für RNA-Hairpins und Simulationsbedingungen, um die zu untersuchenden RNA-Hairpins in Wasser möglichst realitätsnah zu simulieren. Erstens werden drei Versionen des biomolekularen AMBER-Kraftfelds geprüft, indem man die 60 ns Simulationen des 14-mer uCACGg-Hairpins durchführt. Die simulierten strukturellen Eigenschaften und Atomfluktuationen zeigen hohe Ähnlichkeiten in den drei Kraftfeldern. Darüber hinaus stimmen die von MD-Simulationen berechneten Atomkernabstände mit den experimentellen NMR-Daten gut überein. Die gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Simulationen und den strukturellen NMR Daten belegt die Fähigkeit des AMBER-Kraftfelds zur Beschreibung der strukturellen Eigenschaft von kleinen RNA-Hairpins. Anschließend werden die Einflüsse der Methoden, welche die langreichweitigen, elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen beschreiben, auf die strukturellen Eigenschaften untersucht. Insbesondere werden die Ergebnisse der Reaktionfeld-Methode mit denen der Particle Mesh Ewald (PME)-Methode verglichen. Es zeigt sich, dass die PME-Methode die elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen am besten beschreibt, auch wenn die Simulationen der beiden Methoden Ähnlichkeit in der Struktur-Stabilität und der Atomfluktuation bei niedriger Natriumkonzentration aufweisen. Drittens wird der Kationseffekt auf die RNA-Stabilität untersucht. Betrachtet wurden zwei unterschiedliche Kationen (ein- und zweiwertig) und verschiedene Konzentrationen. Die Simulationen weisen darauf hin, dass sich die Metallionen in der Affinität zum RNA-Hairpin unterscheiden, wenn Na+ und/oder Mg2+ als Gegenionen verwendet werden. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass sich die bevorzugten Positionen der Na+-Ionen in der großen Furche (major groove) des RNA-Hairpins befinden. Insbesondere die Anlagerungsort der Na+-Ionen liegen in der Nähe des schließenden Basenpaar U5-G10. Im Vergleich zu Na+-Ionen lagern sich Mg2+-Ionen sowohl an die RNA-Basen U3, A4-U11, und die Phosphat-Gruppe, als auch an das schließenden Basenpaar U5-G10 an. Bestätigt werden die Modelle und Simulationsbedingungen durch den Vergleich von Parametern, die sowohl experimentell als auch durch Simulationen ermittelt werden können. Ferner erlauben MD-Simulationen Einblick in das System, indem sie detallierte Konformations- und andere Verteilungen liefern. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Einflüsse der Loopsequenz und des schließenden Basenpaares auf die Verteilung der Konformationen, der internen Bewegungen, und auf die Thermostabilität von zwei RNA-Hairpins mit Hilfe dieser Modelle untersucht. Zunächst wurden die strukturellen Eigenschaften bei Raumtemperatur ausgewertet. Die starken strukturellen Ähnlichkeiten und die gute Übereinstimmung mit NMR-Daten bestätigen die Hypothese, dass die zwei Tetraloops zur gleichen “erweiterten” RNA-Familie gehören. Diese zwei Hairpins haben ähnliche Lösemittelzugängliche Oberflächen (solvent accessible surface), wobei deren Lösemittel zugänglichen funktionellen Gruppen unterschiedlich sind. Weiterhin weist das uCACGg-Hairpin eine stärkere Tendenz auf Wasserstoffe abzugeben als das cUUCGg-Hairpin, was in den unterschiedlichen Bindungsaffinitäten zwischen diesen Hairpins und der viralen Protease begründet liegt. Darüber hinaus wurde der Faltungs- und Entfaltungsprozess mit Hilfe der Replica-Exchange-Molekulardynamik-Simulationen untersucht. Diese Untersuchung zielt auf das bessere Verständnis der unterschiedlichen Thermostabilität der Hairpins, indem sie die möglichen Zwischenprodukte im atomaren Detail liefern. Sowohl experimentell als auch von den MD-Simulationen ergibt sich eine Differenz in den Schmelztemperaturen der beiden Hairpins von ungefähr 20 K. Allerdings sind die von MD beobachteten Schmelztemperaturen 20 % höher als die von Experiment zu ansehende Wert. Die Ergebnisse machen deutlich, dass die Schmelztemperaturdifferenz nicht auf die Unterschiede in der Sequenz, in der Struktur, oder in der Dynamik der Loops zurückführen sind, sondern auf die Unterschiede der Basenpaaren in den Stämmen. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass sich das uCACGg-Hairpin einerseits kooperativ entfaltet, und die Entfaltung des cCACGg-Hairpins anderseits weniger kooperativ stattfindet. Um die schnelle interne Dynamik der uCACGg- und cUUCGg-Hairpins zu untersuchen, erlauben die Simulationen von 50 ns eine akurate Beschreibung der schnellen internen Bewegung der RNA-Hairpin, obwohl der den Hairpins zugängliche Konformationsraum nicht vollständig abgedeckt wird. Die NMR-Relaxationsparameter, die mit Hilfe der MD-Simulationen zurückgerechnet wurden, bestätigen das Modell und die Simulationsbedingungen der MD-Simulationen. Im Hinblick auf die Übereinstimmung kann man den besten Ansatz zur Berechnung der NMR-Ordnungsparameter bestimmen. In dieser Arbeit wurden drei verschiedene Ansätze angewandt, nämlich das Fitting von 100 ps auf modellfreiem Ansatz nach Lipari-Szabo, equilibrium average, und das Gaussian Axial Fluctuation (GAF)-Modell. Die zwei letzteren können nur qualitativ mit den experimentellen Daten übereinstimmen. Die NMR-Ordnungsparameter können mit Hilfe des Modells von Lipari-Szabo richtig ermittelt werden, wenn sich die interne Bewegung in kleineren Zeitskalen als zur Gesamtbewegung vollzieht. Vorausetzung für die Berechnung dieses Modells ist aber, dass das Fitting der internen Korrelationsfunktionen nur auf den ersten Teil von 100 ps der Korrelationsfunktionen eingesetzt wird. Die berechneten Ordnungsparameter deuten auf ein unterschiedliches Verhalten der beiden Hairpins besonders im Loop-Bereich hin. Die konformationelle Umordnung, die beim UUCG-Loop beobachtet wurde, tritt beim CACG-Loop nicht ein. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass es durch den Einsatz von MD Simulationen ermöglicht wird, die strukturellen und dynamischen Eigenschaften der RNA-Systeme auf atomarer Ebene zu untersuchen. Als Schlussfolgerung zeigt diese Doktorarbeit, dass sich die Studie der konformationell Dynamik der RNA-Systeme durch die Kombination aus MD-Simulation und NMR-Spektroskopie sowie der Leistungsfähigkeit der MD-Simulationen, die die interne Bewegungen deutlich beschreiben können, untersuchen lässt.
Both practitioners and academics agree about the importance of price and its direct influenceon consumers’ purchase decision as well as the company profit. In the reality, we rarely see a
single price for a given product. One visit in a store already shows that consumers face many various prices. This strategy of differential prices allows to increase profit but also improves consumers’ situation and increases welfare. A wide range of various price differentiation mechanisms exists on the market which makes price differentiation a very interesting phenomenon. Additionally, market developments constantly allow for new price differentiation applications. In this work, I research a fascinating topic of price differentiation, its various forms
and new application possibilities in changing market areas.
Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGluR7) belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors. mGluR7 is widely distributed in the brain and primarily localized at presynaptic terminals, where it is thought to regulate neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Studies have shown that the intracellular C-terminal tail of mGluR7 binds a variety of proteins in addition to trimeric G-proteins. These newly identified protein interactions are believed to play a key role in the synaptic targeting and G-protein dependent signaling of mGluR7. Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1), a PDZ-domain protein, is a strong interaction partner of mGluR7a. In order to investigate the role of PICK1 in the synaptic trafficking and signaling of mGluR7a, a knock-in mouse line in which the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 is disrupted was generated. Analysis of the mutant mice by immunocytochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a was not altered, indicating that PICK1 is not required for mGluR7a receptor membrane trafficking and synaptic localization. However, when the spontaneous synaptic activity of cerebellar granule cell cultures prepared from both wild-type and knock-in mice was monitored, and L-AP4 (400μm) was found to decrease the frequency, but not the amplitude, of spontaneous excitatory currents in wild-type neurons, while no effect of L-AP4 on spontaneous synaptic activity was observed in knock-in neurons. This indicates that PICK1 binding to the C-terminal region of mGluR7a plays an essential role in mGluR7a mediated G-protein signaling. We examined the threshold sensitivity for the convulsant pentetrazole (PTZ) in knock-in mice. It was found that mGluR7a knock-in mice had a greater sensitivity to PTZ than wild-type mice. Moreover, the surface parietal cortex EEG recordings of the mutant mice revealed spontaneous synchronous oscillation, or "spike-and-wave discharges" (SWD), which displayed similar characteristics to absence-like seizures. It was also observed that the knock-in mice responded to pharmacology as human absence epilepsy. These data suggests that the knock-in mice displayed the phenotype of absencelike epilepsy. Furthermore, the behavioral analysis of the mGluR7a knock-in mice showed no deficits in motor coordination, pain sensation, anxiety as well as spatial learning and memory, thus the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 appears not to contribute to these physiological processes. Taken together, our data provides evidence for an important role of PICK1 in Gprotein dependent signaling of mGluR7a, whereas PICK1 is not required for synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a. Our results also provide an animal model of absencelike epilepsy generated by disruption of a single mGluR7a-PDZ interaction, thus creating a novel therapeutic target against this neurological disease.