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Vorzugsaktien ohne Stimmrecht sind ein hybrides Finanzierungsinstrument zwischen der stimmberechtigten Stammaktie auf der einen Seite und der Schuldverschreibung auf der anderen. Ebenso wie die reguläre Aktie gewährt die Vorzugsaktie ihrem Inhaber eine ergebnisabhängige Teilhabe am Residuum, während sie - insofern der Schuldverschreibung vergleichbar - zumindest im praktischen Regelfall ihrem Inhaber kein Stimmrecht und damit nicht die Möglichkeit gibt, im Rahmen der sonst den Eigenkapitalgebern vorbehaltenen Befugnisse den Einsatz des Gesellschaftsvermögens und die Verwendung seiner Erträge zu beeinflussen. Veränderungen der Verfassung der Gesellschaft, wie z. B. Unterstellung der Gesellschaft unter einen Unternehmensvertrag, Eingliederung, Verschmelzung, Vermögensübertragung oder Ausgliederung des wesentlichen Betriebsvermögens auf eine Tochter und Rückzug auf eine Holdingfunktion, Umwandlung und - demnächst - Auf- und Abspaltung wirken sich wegen der angedeuteten unterschiedlichen Struktur dieser Finanzierungsinstrumente in ganz unterschiedlicher Weise auf diese und die Stellung ihrer Inhaber aus, Die Fragen, die sich hierbei für die Vorzugsaktionäre stellen, sind bisher noch nicht zusammenhängend in einer systematischen Weise erörtert worden 2 . Erst jüngst haben gerichtliche Entscheidungen zur Eingliederung der Siemens- Nixdorf Informationssysteme AG (SNI) in die Siemens Aktiengesellschaft auf die Frage hingewiesen, ob den Vorzugsaktionären der SNI als Abfindung gemäß § 320 Abs. 5 S. 2 AktG wiederum Vorzugsaktien der Siemens AG angeboten werden müssen 3. Dasselbe Problem stellt sich nach § 305 AktG bei Abschluß eines Unternehmensvertrages und schließlich auch bei der Verschmelzung zweier Aktiengesellschaften4. Die folgenden Bemerkungen befassen sich mit der Rechtsstellung der Vorzugsaktionäre bei einer Ausgliederung nach unten und mit der Ausgabe von Vorzugsaktien in verbundenen Unternehmen. Der folgende Abschnitt (It.) behandelt die Frage, in weicher Weise eine Ausgliederung auf eine Tochter die Position der Vorzugsaktionäre der Obergesellschaft berührt, und wie diese Position vor Beeinträchtigungen durch eine solche Maßnahme geschützt ist. Im dritten Abschnitt wird die Stellung der Vorzugsaktionäre der Obergesellschaft bei Ausgabe neuer Aktien oder Geschäftsanteile in der Tochter erörtert (Ill.). Den Abschluß (IV.) bilden Überlegungen zu der Frage, wie eine Aushöhlung der Schutzvorschrift des § 139 Abs. 2 AktG5 durch Ausgabe von Vorzugsaktien in verschiedenen miteinander verbundenen Unternehmen ausgeschlossen werden kann.
Eine Anleihe ist die Aufnahme von Kapital gegen die Ausgabe von Inhaberschuldverschreibungen. Die Inhaberschuldverschreibungen verbriefen Ansprüche auf Rückzahlung und Verzinsung des zur Verfügung gestellten Kapitals. Die inhaltliche Gestaltung der Ansprüche ist in das Belieben der Emittentin gestellt. Welche Leistung geschuldet ist und welche Einwendungen erhoben werden dürfen, muß sich allerdings aus der Urkunde ergeben, §§ 793, 796 BGB. Die Urkunde enthält Anleihebedingungen. Anleihebedingungen haben, soweit sie das Verhältnis zwischen Schuldner und Gläubiger betreffen,* zwei Komponenten: Die Angaben über Verzinsung und Rückzahlung bilden die Leistungskomponente der Anleihe. Ihre Sicherheitskomponente umfaßt dagegen Bestimmungen über den Schutz der Gläubiger vor Verschlechterung der verbrieften Ansprüche, beispielsweise Kündigungs- und Negativklauseln. Ungeklärt ist bislang, ob diese Anleihebedingungen der Einbeziehungs- und Inhaltskontrolle nach dem AGB- Gesetz unterliegen. An Behauptungen, daß das AGB- Gesetz auch für Anleihebedingungen gelte, fehlt es nicht. Nach Begründungen aber sucht man vergebens. Dem Betrachter der Emissionspraxis von DM- Auslandsanleihen jedenfalls müssen sich Zweifel an der Anwendbarkeit des AGB- Gesetzes geradezu aufdrängen. Die Emittentin veräußert die Teilschuldverschreibungen nicht direkt an Anleger, tritt diesen also nicht als Verwender der Anleihebedingungen gegenüber. Der Ersterwerb der Anleihe vollzieht sich stattdessen im Verhältnis der Emittentin und Emissionsbank. Zwischen diesen aber werden die Anleihebedingungen ausgehandelt. Der Anleger erwirbt von seiner Bank oder an der Börse also eine im einzelnen ausgehandelte Forderung. Ihm hat kein Verwender die Bedingungen gestellt, wie in § 1 Abs. 1 Satz 1 AGB- G beschrieben. Diese - noch im einzelnen darzustellenden - Umstände lassen die Anwendung des AGB- G auf Anleihebedingungen problematisch erscheinen. Das dogmatische Unbehagen läßt sich auch nicht ohne weiteres durch den Hinweis auf zwingende Gebote des Verbraucherschutzes beseitigen. Der Blick über die Grenzen und auf andere große Anleihemärkte der Erde lehrt vielmehr, daß eine AGB- rechtliche Kontrolle von Anleihebedingungen alles andere als selbstverständlich wäre: Der englische Unfair Contract Terms Act 7977 erfaßt Anleiheverträge nicht, und auch US- amerikanischen Juristen ist die Vorstellung fremd, bond covenants als contracts of adhesion zu begreifen. Es darf daher nicht verwundern, wenn Beobachter des hiesigen Kapitalmarktes besorgt fragen, ob in Deutschland in diesem Falle andere Regeln gelten als international üblich. Die Frage nach Geltung des AGB- G für Anleihebedingungen hat aber nicht nur praktisches Interesse, sondern auch ihren dogmatischen Reiz: Der Fall, daß zwei Parteien individualvertraglich eine Vielzahl standardisierter Forderungen produzieren, um sie anschließend marktlieh abzusetzen, führt in einige kaum erforschte Grenzgebiete des Rechts der Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen.
In early 1991 the United States Treasury Department of the Bush Administration recommended in ib proposal for Modemizing The FinancialSystem l that, in addition to other remarkable breaks with the traditional United States financial Services framework, the current bank holding Company structure be replaced with a new financial Services holding Company that would reward banks with the ability to engage in a broad new range of financial activities through separate afbliates, including full-service securities, insurance, and mutual fund activities. The Treaaury Department pointed out that commercial banking and investment banking are complementary Services and that the Glass-Steagall Separation was unnecessary. The Treasury Department gave many reasons for the need for financial modernization and why such a modemized System would work better. As an example that demonstrates the advantages of the System proposed by the Treasury Department, the proposal pointed to the German banks and called the German model of a universal banking System the most liberal banking System in the world. -What makes the German universal banking System so unique and desirable? The following outline of the history and the current structure of the Getman banking System is intended to give readers a background tc determine whether the German banking System could be a model for the System of the future.
The task of this Paper as originally described in the outline of the current project was to compare the German banking System, as one type of relationship banking , with the Japanese main bank System. This was, of course, not simply meant in the sense of a mere description and comparison of different institutions. A meaningful contribution rather has to look at the functions of a given banking System as a provider of capital or other financial Services to their client firms, has to ask in what respect the one or the other System might be superior or less efficient, and has to analyze the reasons for this. Such a thorough analysis would have to answer questions like, for instance, to what extent investment is financed by (lang or short term-)bank loans, whether German banks have, because of specific institutional arrangements like own equity holdings, seats on Company boards or other links with their borrowers, informational or other advantages that make bank finance eheaper or easier available; how such banks behave with respect to financial distress and bankruptcy of their client firms, and what their exact role in corporate governance is. While preparing this Paper I found that in Order to give reliable answers to these questions there had to be several other conferences comparable to the present one that had to focus exclusively on our domestic System. Hence what this Paper only tan provide for at this moment is a short overview of the German banking System and its special t r a i t s ( Universalbankensystem and Group Banking ; part I), describe and analyse some aspects of bank lending to firms (Part II), and the role of German banks as delegated monitors in widely held firms (Part Ill). A description of the historical development of the specific links between banks and industry and their impact on the economic growth of Germany during the period of the industrialization and later on would be specifically interesting within the framework of a Conference that discusses the lessons and relevante of banking Systems for developing market economies and for transforming socialist economies. However, historical remarks had to be omitted completely, not least because of lack of own knowledge, time and space, but also because this history is already well documented and available in English publications, too.
Übernahmen durch öffentliches Übernahmeangebot sind nur einer von verschiedenen Wegen, um die Kontrolle in einer Kapitalgesellschaft zu erlangen. Nach deutschem Recht stehen daneben - und sind praktisch sehr viel wichtiger - der sukzessive Erwerb einer kontrollierenden Beteiligung durch Aufkauf an der Börse, ferner der Kontrollerwerb durch Paketkauf, und schließlich die Übernahme einer kontrollierenden Beteiligung durch Kapitalerhöhung mit Ausschluß des Bezugsrechts. Der Kontrollerwerb durch öffentliches Übernahmeangebot ist insofern also zunächst einmal nichts weiter als eine spezielle Technik und kann, ebenso wie die erwähnten anderen Formen, denselben unternehmerischen Zwecken dienen: Erwerb der Anteile an einem anderen Unternehmen, um dessen Marktanteil hinzuzugewinnen oder Größenvorteile zu erlangen, Synergieeffekte zu realisieren, dauerhaft eine Kontrolle über ein Zulieferunternehmen oder einen Absatzweg zu etablieren usw. Paketkauf, sukzessiver Erwerb einer kontrollierenden Beteiligung und öffentliches Übernahmeangebot haben darüber hinaus gemeinsam, daß sie gegen den Willen des amtierenden Managements erfolgen können, sofern nicht praeventive Schutzmaßnahmen gegen ein solches hostile takeover getroffen sind. Eine auf Manne zurückgehende Ansicht entwickelt daraus ein weiteres Motiv für Übernahmen, das neben die bereits oben erwähnten Motive treten kann: Ein Abweichen der Manager vom Ziel der Maximierung des Unternehmenswertes führt dazu, daß der Aktienkurs des betreffenden Unternehmens sinkt oder sich nicht so entwickelt, wie dies bei einer anderen Unternehmensstrategie zu erwarten wäre. Der niedrigere Kurs ermöglicht es einem anderen Unternehmen oder z. B. auch einem raider , das Unternehmen aufzukaufen, das Management zu ersetzen und das Unternehmen auf den Kurs der Gewinnmaximierung zurückzubringen. Durch diese Strategie kann der Aufkäufer den Unternehmenswert steigern und diesen gestiegenen Unternehmenswert z. B. auch dadurch realisieren, daß er seine Beteiligung anschließend wieder an der Börse verkauft. Aus dieser Beobachtung ist die These von der Kontrolle des Managements durch den Kapitalmarkt ( market for corporate control ) entwickelt worden. Fehler des Managements werden durch die Börsenkursentwicklung entdeckt und in geeigneten Fällen durch eine Übernahme und Entlassung bestraft . Und bereits die Drohung mit einer feindlichen Übernahme, die dann erfolgen kann, wenn das Management nicht mehr den Unternehmenswert maximiert, wirkt disziplinierend. Jede Abweichung von diesem Ziel der Unternehmenswertmaximierung kann also tendenziell durch eine feindliche Übernahme und die dadurch werden. Wenn diese gements der ermöglichte Ablösung des bisherigen Managements geahndet These zutrifft, dann sprechen gute Gründe dafür, den Managroßen Publikumsgesellschaften nicht zu gestatten, Hindernisse aufzubauen, die Übernahmen verhindern oder doch von ihrem Einverständnis abhängig machen. Es besteht dann, zweitens, aller Grund dazu, die EGKommission in ihrem Bemühen zu unterstützen, solche Übernahmehindernisse zu beseitigen (s. den Vorschlag der Fünften Richtlinie mit den darin enthaltenen Vorschlägen gegen Mehrstimmrechte und Höchststimmrechte). Drittens braucht man sich dann vielleicht weniger Gedanken darum zu machen, wie die corporate governance in solchen Großunternehmen durch sonstige, institutionelle Vorkehrungen verbessert werden kann - durch Ergänzung oder Änderung der internen Kontrollmechanismen (Aufsichtsrat, Abschlußprüfung, Haftung), durch Schaffung von Anreizsystemen (erfolgsabhängige Vergütung) oder durch Verbesserung der Repräsentation der Anteilseigner durch Depotbanken oder institutionelle Investoren5. Die folgenden Bemerkungen beschäftigen sich mit dem market for corporate control als Kontrollinstrument vornehmlich aus der Sicht des deutschen Gesellschaftsrechts. Im folgenden Abschnitt (11.) wird zunächst die Frage behandelt, ob und in welchen Fällen das beschriebene Kontrollinstrument überhaupt imstande ist, unternehmerisches Fehlverhalten zu korrigieren. In einem weiteren Abschnitt (Ill.) wird dann gefragt, ob die Einführung eines solchen Sanktionsmechanismus, der den Vorstand für Abweichungen vom Prinzip der Unternehmenswertmaximierung bestraft , nicht gegen ein Grundprinzip des deutschen Aktienrechts verstoßen würde, wonach der Vorstand gerade nicht verpflichtet ist, den Anteilswert zu maximieren. Sodann wird erörtert, ob dem Vorstand gestattet werden sollte, Übernahmehindernisse aufzubauen (IV.). Der letzte Abschnitt (V.) geht schließlich auf die Frage ein, ob feindliche Übernahmen als Managementkontrollinstrument möglicherweise zu nachteiligem (kurzfristigem) Verhalten des Managements führen.
Other than in Belgium, German banks may hold even controlling equity participations in industrial firms (and such firms may own banks) and do so to a large extent. Vis-a-vis the European development this leads to two questions: From the perspective of the (Belgian and other) competitors of these banks, whether their own domestic System might be disadvantageous to them. And from a public interest perspective, which advantages and drawbacks are connected with the different regulations in Europe. The article first informs about the legal framework and some statistical facts. Then the various and different reasons why banks acquire and hold shares on own account are analyzed. The following Parts deal with the various public policy arguments whether equity links between banks and industrial firms should be prohibited or not (safety and soundness of banking; autonomie de Ia fonction bancaire ; abuse of confidential information and conflicts of interest; antitrust considerations; negative and positive impacts on the respective firm). In its last part the article deals with recent proposals in the German political debate to limit stockholdings of banks. The article argues that a step-by-step approach to the Single Problems and issues (conflict of interests; anticompetitive effects etc.) should be preferred to a general limitation of stock ownership of banks.
"Securitization" im allgemeinen Sinne bezeichnet den Trend weg von der klassischen Form der Unternehmensfinanzierung durch Bankkredite hin zu wertpapiermäßigen Finanzierungen. Die mit diesem Prozeß der zunehmenden Securitization und "Disintermediation" verbundenen vielfältigen Fragen, seine Bedeutung für sämtliche Beteiligten - die Unternehmen, Investoren und die traditionellen Finanzintermediäre - werden seit langem erörtert . Zunächst befaßte sich diese Diskussion insbesondere mit der Verdrängung von Buchkrediten durch direkte Wertpapierplazierungen seitens der Unternehmungen. Dieser Verdrängungsprozeß schreitet seit der Abschaffung der Genehmigungspflicht für die Emission von Schuldverschreibungen gemäß § 795 BGB offenbar weiter kräftig fort, wie sich an den jüngsten DM "commercial paper"-Programmen einer Reihe großer deutscher Unternehmen zeigt. Zweitens - und dies ist das Thema der nachfolgenden Überlegungen - bezeichnet securitization aber auch die Umwandlung bereits bestehender Buchkredite (oder anderer Aktiva) in Wertpapiere. Auf eine kurze Formel gebracht, geht es in diesen Fällen darum, daß bestimmte assets , gleichartige Aktiva, die einen Zahlungsstrom erzeugen, wie z. B. Kreditforderungen, Schuldscheine oder nicht marktgängige Wertpapiere, Leasingforderungen oder sonstige Forderungsbündel von Industrie- oder Handelsunternehmen, von deren bisherigem Inhaber, dem Anschlußunternehmen , an einen rechtlich selbständigen Fonds veräußert werden. Dieser Fonds finanziert den Kaufpreis durch die Ausgabe von Wertpapieren an institutionelle Anleger oder das breite Publikum. Diese Wertpapiere sind damit "asset backed". Entwickelt wurde diese Finanzinnovation auf dem amerikanischen Kapitalmarkt; sie wird seit mehreren Jahren aber auch im europäischen Ausland angewandt. Deutsche Banken und Unternehmen halten sich dagegen bisher zurück, und beteiligen sich allenfalls an entsprechenden Transaktionen mit Auslandsbezug (Veräußerung von Forderungsbeständen an im Ausland gegründete Fonds; Unterstützung solcher ABS-Transaktionen im oder ins Ausland durch einzelne Banken). Dies dürfte nicht zuletzt mit der bisher weithin ungeklärten Rechtslage zusammenhängen, und zwar in handelsrechtlicher wie in steuerlicher Hinsicht. Nachdem die ABS-Technik jüngst mehrfach im bankbetrieblichen und betriebswirtschaftlichen deutschen Schrifttum dargestellt und analysiert worden ist, soll im folgenden versucht werden, die damit verknüpften zivil- und handelsrechtlichen Fragen aufzuzeigen und einige dieser Fragen auch etwas eingehender zu erörtern. Die Darstellung geht zunächst in Kürze auf die Entstehung dieser Finanzinnovation auf dem amerikanischen Kapitalmarkt ein (B.). Weitere Abschnitte weisen auf denkbare Anwendungsfelder, Vorteile und Risiken hin (C.) und fragen dann nach der rechtlichen Zulässigkeit und ausgewählten Aspekten dieses Finanzierungsinstruments nach deutschen Recht (D.) Steuerliche Fragen werden nicht behandelt.
The corporate governance Systems in the U.K. and in Germany differ markedly. German large firms have a two-board structure, they are subject to employee codetermination, their managements are not confronted with public hostile takeover bids, and banks play a major role in corporate governance, through equity stakes, through proxies given to them by small investors, and through bankers positions on the supervisory boards of these firms. One of the main issues of corporate governance in large firms, the Problem of shareholders passivity in monitoring management in Berle-Means type corporations, is thus addressed by an institutional Provision, the role of the banks, rather than by a market-oriented Solution as we find it in the U.K. with its market for corporate control through the threat of hostile takeovers. These two different approaches to corporate governance have been compared several times recently, and it was argued that a bank-based or institutional Solution has clear advantages and should be preferred. Cosh, Hughes and Singh, for example, argue at the conclusion of their discussion of takeovers and short-termism in the U.K. that the institutional shareholder [in the UK] should take a much more active and vigorous part in the internal governance of corporations. . . . In Order for such a proposal to be effective both in disciplining inefficient managements and promoting long-term investments, far reaching changes in the internal workings and behaviour of the financial institutions would be required. The financial institutions would need to pool their resources together, set up specialised departments for promoting investment and innovations - in other words behave like German banks. The following remarks seek to continue this discussion from the German perspective. The article will first attempt to evaluate the monitoring potential of our domestic bank or institution-oriented corporate governance System and then, in a further patt, compare it with that of a market-oriented Solution. lt will be argued that both Systems focus on different Problems and have specific advantages and drawbacks, and that there are still quite a few puzzles to be solved until all pros and cons of each of these monitoring devices tan be assessed. The perception that both Systems focus on different Problems suggests combining institutional monitoring with a market for corporate control rather than considering them to be contrasting and incompatible approaches. The article is organized as follows. Section II will describe the legal structure of the large corporation in Germany in more detail. Section Ill explains why a market for corporate control by the threat of public hostile takeover bids does not exist in Germany. Section IV then Shows how corporate governance in publicly held corporations with small investors is organized instead, and deals with the role of banks in corporate governance in these firms. Section V of the atticle then will try to compare the monitoring potential of a marketoriented and our bank or institution-oriented corporate governance System. Concluding remarks follow.