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Increasing the diversity of policy committees has taken center stage worldwide, but whether and why diverse committees are more effective is still unclear. In a randomized control trial that varies the salience of female and minority representation on the Federal Reserve’s monetary policy committee, the FOMC, we test whether diversity affects how Fed information influences consumers’ subjective beliefs. Women and Black respondents form unemployment expectations more in line with FOMC forecasts and trust the Fed more after this intervention. Women are also more likely to acquire Fed-related information when associated with a female official. White men, who are overrepresented on the FOMC, do not react negatively. Heterogeneous taste for diversity can explain these patterns better than homophily. Our results suggest more diverse policy committees are better able to reach underrepresented groups without inducing negative reactions by others, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of policy communication and public trust in the institution.
The US Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) led to a drastic reduction in the corporate tax and improved the treatment of C corporations compared to S corporations. We study the differential effect of the TCJA on these types of corporations using key economic variables of US banks, such as the number of employees, average salaries and benefits, profit/loss before taxes, and net income. Our analysis suggests that the TCJA increased the net-of-tax profits of C corporation banks compared to S corporations and, to a lesser extent, their pre-tax profits. At the same time, the reform triggered no significantly differential effect on the employment and average wages.
Our starting point is the following simple but potentially underappreciated observation: When assessing willingness to pay (WTP) for hedonic features of a product, the results of such measurement are influenced by the context in which the consumer makes her real or hypothetical choice or in which the questions to which she replies are set (such as in a contingent valuation analysis). This observation is of particular relevance when WTP regards sustainability, the “non-use value” of which does not derive from a direct (physical) sensation and where perceived benefits depend heavily on available information and deliberations. The recognition of such context sensitivity paves the way for a broader conception of consumer welfare (CW), and our proposed standard of “reflective WTP” may materially change the scope for private market initiatives with regards to sustainability, while keeping the analytical framework within the realm of the CW paradigm. In terms of practical implications, we argue, for instance, that actual purchasing decisions may prove insufficient to measure consumer appreciation of sustainability, as they may rather echo learnt but unreflected heuristics and may be subject to the specific shopping context, such as heavy price promotions. Also, while it may reflect current social norm, the latter may change considerably over time as more consumers adopt their behavior.
As 2021 draws to a close, Covid-19 continues to prevail worldwide. With the proverbial return to normalcy still appearing distant, there is now a tacit acceptance globally that at least for the foreseeable future, we must live with Covid-19. Given that Covid-19 is an infectious disease—which by definition is transmitted from person to person—the continued prevalence of Covid-19 has implications for how local authorities, communities, and individuals around the world will approach public spaces. While it may be premature to assume a so-called coronacene (see Higgins et al. 2020), going into the future our use of public spaces will be overshadowed by the possibility, even if remote, of illness or death by virtue of close proximity to other individuals.
Along with parks and squares, streets and avenues, bazaars constitute ubiquitous public spaces, including in countries of the developing world, such as Armenia and Georgia, our countries of discussion here. Although there is not a clear bifurcation between bazaars and other types of marketplaces, bazaars will usually be comprised of a multitude of nonfranchised, self-owned, small businesses that are variously family-run or rely on family labor. They are usually perceived as chaotic places that lack hygiene (the purportedly unhygienic character of the bazaar was brought to the forefront with the pandemic, given how Covid-19’s origin is widely assumed to be a Wuhan wet market).
In Armenia and Georgia, and indeed, across the former Soviet Union, bazaars are a source of employment for the urban and peri-urban population; they also offer goods at price points attractive to a wide demographic. This working paper builds on the premise that the bazaar is an informal institution. Bazaar traders will typically assemble networks by themselves (with manufacturers and wholesalers, buyers and transporters). These networks will usually vary from one business to another. Also, ownership and rent structures are frequently opaque, and the majority of commercial transactions are in cash, which does not appear in state records. As a consequence, for the state, many small businesses do not exist (Fehlings and Karrar 2016, 2020).
For those of us researching bazaar trading, Covid-19 has given rise to a basic question: How have independent businesses been transformed by the pandemic? This working paper is an attempt to parse this question in light of developments in Armenia and Georgia. In this working paper, we suggest that the Covid-19 pandemic has deepened informality in the bazaar. That being said, we want to underscore that the present discussion is exploratory. Our ethnography remains limited, and we look forward to returning to the field as soon as it is safe to do so.
Historically Central Bank Independence (CBI) was anything but the norm. CBI seems to contradict core principles of democracy. Most economists were also against CBI. After the Great Inflation of the 1970ies many empirical studies demonstrated that there is a strong negative correlation between the degree of CBI and the rate of inflation. In 1990 most major countries had endowed their central bank with the status of independence. Overburdening with elevated expectations and additional competences are threatening the reputation of central banks and undermining the case for CBI.
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the concept of solidarity and distinguish various conceptions of solidarity that differ depending on social and normative contexts. The analysis helps to clarify both the different meanings of the term “solidarity” (and the different normative conceptions) and to avoid some of its pitfalls. The latter stem from making false connections between these conceptions, such as the assumption that solidarity must always be of an ethical or nationalist nature, that it is categorially different from justice or is always supererogatory. Solidarity as a virtue comes in many forms and with many justifications and grounds, and one must not reduce this plurality, but instead describe it properly. As already indicated, this opens up the possibility of conflicts between these contexts and dimensions of solidarity. The (as argued) “normatively dependent” concept of solidarity does not tell us to which form we ought to accord priority.
Six species of lichens are described as new from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil): Astrothelium aureoirregulare Aptroot & Gumboski, Bogoriella xantholateralis Aptroot, Lecanora umbilicatimmersa Aptroot & Spielmann, Lepra lichexanthonorstictica Aptroot, Megalaria flavosorediata Aptroot and Vainionora sorediata Aptroot. Moreover, 28 further species are reported which are first records for Brazil; and a further 166 are first records for Santa Catarina and 104 for Rio Grande do Sul.
We identify strong cross-border institutions as a driver for the globalization of in-novation. Using 67 million patents from over 100 patent offices, we introduce novel measures of innovation diffusion and collaboration. Exploiting staggered bilateral in-vestment treaties as shocks to cross-border property rights and contract enforcement, we show that signatory countries increase technology adoption and sourcing from each other. They also increase R&D collaborations. These interactions result in techno-logical convergence. The effects are particularly strong for process innovation, and for countries that are technological laggards or have weak domestic institutions. Increased inter-firm rather than intra-firm foreign investment is the key channel.
In a continuation of my investigation of tropical lichenized fungi, a treatment of new or otherwise interesting lichens mainly from Brazil and Venezuela is presented. A total of 34 species are reported here, most of them new discoveries for at least one the two countries or a new discovery for a state, including 11 species new to science. These are Malmidea albomarginata Kalb & Hernández from Venezuela, differing from M. granifera by the thin, white apothecial margins and a white to yellowish medulla, M. allobakeri Kalb & M. Cáceres from Brazil, differing from M. bakeri in lacking atranorin and in having smaller ascospores, M. allopapillosa Kalb from Venezuela, differing from M. papillosa in having atranorin as a major metabolite, M. atlanticoides Kalb & M. Cáceres from Brazil, differing from M. atlantica in containing atranorin and an unknown anthraquinone as major metabolites, M. hechicerae from Venezuela, differing from M. coralliformis by the K+ lemon-yellow medulla of the thallus, M. hernandeziana Kalb from Venezuela, differing from M. fellhaneroides in having a chocolate-brown hypothecium, larger apothecia and larger ascospores, M. isidiifera Kalb from Brazil and Venezuela, differing from M. piperis in having granular to coralloid isidia and atranorin as a major metabolite, M. leucopiperis Kalb from Brazil and Venezuela, differing from M. piperis in the pale-colored hypothecium, M. rhodopisoides Kalb from Brazil, differing from M. rhodopis in having granular isidia, M. subcinerea Kalb from Venezuela, differing from M. cinerea in producing no lichen substances, and M. volcaniana Kalb & Hernández from Venezuela and Brazil, differing from M. sulphureosorediata in having an alternative anthraquinone-chemistry. In addition, the new combination Stigmatochroma glaucothecum (Fée) Kalb is proposed. New reports for Venezuela include Bacidiopsora microphylla Kalb, B. silvicola (Malme) Kalb (new also for Guatemala), Buellia albula (Nyl.) Müll. Arg., Coenogonium pyrophthalmum (Mont.) Lücking, Aptroot & Sipman, Dirinaria rhodocladonica Kalb, Schumm & Elix, Malmidea badimioides (M. Cáceres & Lücking) M. Cáceres & Kalb (new also for Mexico), M. leptoloma (Müll. Arg.) Kalb & Lücking, M. nigromarginata (Malme) Lücking & Breuss, M. perplexa Kalb, M. polycampia (Tuck.) Kalb & Lücking, M. rhodopis (Tuck.) Kalb, Rivas Plata & Lumbsch, M. sulphureosorediata M. Cáceres, D. A. Mota & Aptroot, M. vinosa (Eschw.) Kalb, Rivas Plata & Lumbsch, Psilolechia lucida (Ach.) Choisy, Rhizocarpon sipmanianum Kalb & Aptroot, Sipmaniella sulfureofusca (Fée) Kalb, Stigmatochroma glaucothecum (Fée) Kalb and Vainionora aemulans (Vain.) Kalb. A collection of Pyxine caesiopruinosa (Nyl.) Imsh. from Venezuela is mentioned and its differentiation from P. albovirens (G. Mey.) Aptroot is discussed. New reports for Brazil include Malmidea atlantica (M. Cáceres & Lücking) M. Cáceres & Kalb (for Bahia state) and M. sulphureosorediata (for São Paulo state). A morphological, anatomical and chemical comparison of type material of Malmidea polycampia (Tuck.) Kalb & Lücking and M. flavopustulosa (M. Cáceres & Lücking) M. Cáceres & Kalb revealed that both names are synonym, the first one having priority. For many species revised descriptions and revised chemistry are presented based on South American material. To facilitate the identification of anthraquinones occurring in Malmidea species a table of relative Rfvalues in solvents A, B' and C is presented.