Refine
Document Type
- Article (2)
- Doctoral Thesis (2)
Has Fulltext
- yes (4)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (4)
Keywords
- apoptosis (4) (remove)
Institute
- Biowissenschaften (4) (remove)
Early otic development depends on autophagy for apoptotic cell clearance and neural differentiation
(2012)
Autophagy is a highly regulated program of self-degradation of the cytosolic constituents that has key roles during early development and in adult cell growth and homeostasis. To investigate the role of autophagy in otic neurogenesis, we studied the expression of autophagy genes in early stages of chicken (Gallus gallus) inner ear development and the consequences of inhibiting the autophagic pathway in organotypic cultures of explanted chicken otic vesicles (OVs). Here we show the expression of autophagy-related genes (Atg) Beclin-1 (Atg6), Atg5 and LC3B (Atg8) in the otocyst and the presence of autophagic vesicles by using transmission electron microscopy in the otic neurogenic zone. The inhibition of the transcription of LC3B by using antisense morpholinos and of class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with 3-methyladenine causes an aberrant morphology of the OV with accumulation of apoptotic cells. Moreover, inhibition of autophagy provokes the misregulation of the cell cycle in the otic epithelium, impaired neurogenesis and poor axonal outgrowth. Finally, our results indicate that autophagy provides the energy required for the clearing of neuroepithelial dying cells and suggest that it is required for the migration of otic neuronal precursors. Taken together, our results show for the first time that autophagy is an active and essential process during early inner ear development.
Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process by which cells degrade their own components through the lysosomal machinery. In physiological conditions, the mechanism is tightly regulated and contributes to maintain a balance between synthesis and degradation in cells undergoing intense metabolic activities. Autophagy is associated with major tissue remodeling processes occurring through the embryonic, fetal and early postnatal periods of vertebrates. Here we survey current information implicating autophagy in cellular death, proliferation or differentiation in developing vertebrates. In developing systems, activation of the autophagic machinery could promote different outcomes depending on the cellular context. Autophagy is thus an extraordinary tool for the developing organs and tissues.
Die Zelle repliziert ihre DNA während der S-Phase und segregiert sie dann später in der M Phase des Zellzykluses. Kommt es während dieser Prozesse zu DNA Schädigungen, arretiert die Zelle den Zellzyklus mit Hilfe spezifischer Kontrollmechanismen und versucht den Schaden zu beheben. Der DNA Kontrollpunkt wird bei DNA Schädigungen aktiviert, um mit Hilfe der DNA Reparatur den Schaden zu beheben und somit dafür zu sorgen, dass die DNA fehlerfrei repliziert werden kann. Der zweite Zellzyklus Kontrollpunkt, der Spindel Kontrollpunkt, stellt sicher, dass die Chromosomen während der M Phase unter gleicher Spannung innerhalb der Äquatorialplatte der Metaphase Spindel angeordnet sind. Kann in der Zeit, in der der Zellzyklus Kontrollpunkt aktiv ist, der Schaden nicht behoben werden, so wird Apoptose ausgelöst und die Zelle wird aus dem Zellverband entfernt. Krebszellen haben Strategien entwickelt, Zellzyklus Kontrollpunkte zu umgehen und darüber hinaus normalen Mechanismen der Apoptose zu entkommen. Die genauen molekularen Vorgänge der Deregulierung der Apoptose sind weitestgehend unaufgeklärt. Procaspase 8 ist ein wichtiges Schlüsselenzym des extrinsischen Apoptose Signalweges. Der extrinsische Signalweg wird extrazellulär über die Bindung von Liganden an ihre korrespondierenden Rezeptoren ausgelöst. In dieser Studie wird gezeigt, dass Procaspase 8 an Ser-387 in vitro als auch in vivo von Cdk1/Cyclin B1 phosphoryliert wird. Darüber hinaus zeigt diese Phosphorylierungsstelle die typische Struktur einer Bindungsstelle für Plk1, einer weiteren mitotischen Kinase. Die Interaktion von Procaspase 8 mit Cdk1/Cyclin B1 wird über die DE Domäne („death-effector-domain“ DED) von Procaspase 8 vermittelt. Wird Procaspase 8 an Ser 387 zu Alanin (S387A) mutiert, so wird die Phosphorylierung durch Cdk1/Cyclin B1 fast vollständig verhindert. Wird zudem diese Mutante (S387A) in humanen Krebszellen überexprimiert, so hemmt dies die Apoptose nach Stimulation des Fas Rezeptors. Wird umgekehrt Cyclin B1 mittels RNA Interferenz depletiert und dadurch Cdk1 nicht aktiviert, wird extrinsische Apoptose verstärkt. Diese Studie zeigt erstmals eine gezielte Inhibierung des extrinsischen Apoptose Signalweges durch mitotische Kinasen und schlägt ein Modell vor, in dem Serin/Threonin Kinasen extrinsische Apoptose inhibieren und somit der Tumorzelle ermöglichen, der Apoptose zu entkommen. Darüber hinaus wird ein neuartiger Mechanismus der Inhibition der autokatalytischen Spaltung von Procaspase 8 durch eine mitotische Kinase gezeigt.
Identification and characterization of TNFalpha responsive genes in human breast cancer cells
(2006)
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the escape of the transformed cells from apoptosis. Therefore, the identification of survival genes, allowing cancer cells to circumvent programmed cell death, could provide new diagnostic markers as well as targets for therapeutic intervention. A well known transcription factor regulating the balance between pro- and anti- apoptotic factors is NF-kappaB, which is strongly induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). When cells are stimulated by TNFalpha their response is biphasic with an initial NF-kappaB induction of survival genes which is overridden by the subsequent activation of initiator caspases triggering apoptosis. By combining gene trap mutagenesis with site specific recombination a strategy was developed, which enriches for genes induced by TNFalpha in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. The strategy relies on a one way gene expression switch based on Cre/loxP mediated recombination, which uncouples the expression of a marker gene from the trapped cellular promoter thereby enabling the recovery of genes that are only transiently induced by TNFalpha. The marker gene used in these experiments was a dominant negative variant of the TNFalpha-receptor associated protein FADD (dnFADD), which blocks the apoptotic branch of the TNFalpha induced signaling pathway. Initial experiments indicated that MCF-7 cells expressing high levels of dnFADD were insensitive to TNFalpha induced apoptosis and therefore suitable for the installment of a one way gene expression switch susceptible to Cre/loxP mediated recombination. A MCF-7 reporter clone harboring the recombinase dependent gene expression switch was infected with the gene trap retrovirus U3Cre, which inserts the Cre recombinase gene into a large collection of chromosomal sites. Insertion of Cre downstream of an active cellular promoter induces dnFADD expression from the gene expression switch enabling the cells to block TNFalpha triggered apoptosis. From a gene trap integration library containing approximately 2000000 unique proviral integrations, 69 unique TNFalpha inducible gene trap insertion sites were recovered in a two step selection procedure. Sequencing of the genomic regions adjacent to the insertion sites, which were obtained by inverse PCR (gene trap sequence tags, GTSTs), and data base analysis revealed that 42% of the GTSTs belonged to annotated genes, 13% to known cDNAs with open reading frames, 17% to Genscan predicted genes, 9% to ESTs, 9% to repetitive sequences and 10% to unannotated genomic sequence. Overall, 44% of the annotated genes recovered in this screen were directly or indirectly related to cancer, indicating that the gene trap strategy developed here is suitable for the identification of cancer relevant genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of the trapped and annotated genes in wild type cells revealed that 19 out of 24 genes were either up- or down- regulated by a factor of at least 1.45 by TNFalpha. A large fraction of the gene trap insertions were located upstream, in introns or in opposite orientation to annotated transcripts, indicating that the strategy efficiently recovers non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). While the biological significance of these transcripts still needs to be elucidated, they fall into two main categories. The first category includes gene trap insertions upstream of genes, which could either represent regulatory RNAs interacting with promoter elements or transcripts driven by bidirectional promoters. The second includes inverse orientation gene trap insertions in introns of annotated genes suggesting the presence of natural antisense transcripts (NATs). Interestingly, more than 50% of all antisense integrations are located downstream of transcription start sites predicted by different algorithms supporting the existence of RNAs transcribed from the corresponding genomic regions. Intronic integrations on the coding strand could be derived from cryptic splicing, alternative promoter usage or additional, so far uncharacterized transcripts. Preliminary functional analysis of two genes recovered in this screen encoding the transcription factor ZFP67 and the FLJ14451 protein revealed that FLJ14451 but not ZFP67 inhibited anchorage independent growth in soft agar, suggesting that FLJ14451 might have some tumor suppressor functions. In summary, besides identifying a putative tumor suppressor protein, the present experiments have shown that gene trapping is useful in identifying non-coding transcripts in living cells and may turn out to be the method of choice in characterizing these transcripts whose functions are still largely unknown.