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Low concentrations of oxidized low density lipoprotein (OxLDL) are cytoprotective for phagocytes, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We investigated signaling pathways used by OxLDL to attenuate apoptosis in monocytic cells. OxLDL at 25–50 μg/ml inhibited staurosporine-induced apoptosis in THP-1 cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages, and it was cytoprotective in human primary monocytes upon serum withdrawal. Attenuated cell demise was reversed by blocking extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. Translocation of cytochrome c to the cytosol was attenuated by OxLDL, which again demanded ERK signaling. Analysis of Bcl-2 family proteins revealed phosphorylation of Bad at serine 112 as well as ERK-dependent inhibition of Mcl-1 degradation. Although the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is an established signal generated by OxLDL, ROS scavengers did not interfere with cell protection by OxLDL. Thus, activation of the ERK signaling pathway by OxLDL is important to protect phagocytes from apoptosis.
Macrophages ingesting apoptotic cells attenuate inflammatory responses, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In atherosclerosis, ongoing inflammation and accumulation of apoptotic/necrotic material are observed, suggesting defects of phagocytes in recognizing or responding to dying cells. Modified lipoproteins such as oxidized LDL (oxLDL) are known to promote inflammation and to interfere with apoptotic cell clearance. Here, we studied the impact of cells exposed to oxLDL on their ability to interfere with the oxidative burst in phagocytes. In contrast to apoptotic cells, cells dying in response to or in the presence of oxLDL failed to suppress ROS generation despite efficiently being taken up by phagocytes. In addition, apoptotic cells, but not oxLDL-treated cells, inhibited phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, which is important for NADPH oxidase activation. oxLDL treatment did not interfere with activation of the antiinflammatory transcriptional regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma by apoptotic cells. Moreover, cells exposed to oxLDL failed to suppress lipopolysaccharide- induced proinflammatory cytokine expression, whereas apoptotic cells attenuated these phagocyte responses. Thus, the presence of oxLDL during cell death impaired the ability of apoptotic cells to act antiinflammatory with regard to oxidative burst inhibition and cytokine expression in phagocytes.
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) maintains energy homeostasis by suppressing cellular ATP-consuming processes and activating catabolic, ATP-producing pathways such as fatty acid oxidation (FAO). The transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) also affects fatty acid metabolism, stimulating the expression of genes involved in FAO. To question the interplay of AMPK and PPARδ in human macrophages we transduced primary human macrophages with lentiviral particles encoding for the constitutively active AMPKα1 catalytic subunit, followed by microarray expression analysis after treatment with the PPARδ agonist GW501516. Microarray analysis showed that co-activation of AMPK and PPARδ increased expression of FAO genes, which were validated by quantitative PCR. Induction of these FAO-associated genes was also observed upon infecting macrophages with an adenovirus coding for AMPKγ1 regulatory subunit carrying an activating R70Q mutation. The pharmacological AMPK activator A-769662 increased expression of several FAO genes in a PPARδ- and AMPK-dependent manner. Although GW501516 significantly increased FAO and reduced the triglyceride amount in very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)-loaded foam cells, AMPK activation failed to potentiate this effect, suggesting that increased expression of fatty acid catabolic genes alone may be not sufficient to prevent macrophage lipid overload.
Macrophages respond to the Th2 cytokine IL-4 with elevated expression of arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase (ALOX15). Although IL-4 signaling elicits anti-inflammatory responses, 15-lipoxygenase may either support or inhibit inflammatory processes in a context-dependent manner. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a metabolic sensor/regulator that supports an anti-inflammatory macrophage phenotype. How AMPK activation is linked to IL-4-elicited gene signatures remains unexplored. Using primary human macrophages stimulated with IL-4, we observed elevated ALOX15 mRNA and protein expression, which was attenuated by AMPK activation. AMPK activators, e.g. phenformin and aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-β-d-ribofuranoside inhibited IL-4-evoked activation of STAT3 while leaving activation of STAT6 and induction of typical IL-4-responsive genes intact. In addition, phenformin prevented IL-4-induced association of STAT6 and Lys-9 acetylation of histone H3 at the ALOX15 promoter. Activating AMPK abolished cellular production of 15-lipoxygenase arachidonic acid metabolites in IL-4-stimulated macrophages, which was mimicked by ALOX15 knockdown. Finally, pretreatment of macrophages with IL-4 for 48 h increased the mRNA expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-12, CXCL9, and CXCL10 induced by subsequent stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. This response was attenuated by inhibition of ALOX15 or activation of AMPK during incubation with IL-4. In conclusion, limiting ALOX15 expression by AMPK may promote an anti-inflammatory phenotype of IL-4-stimulated human macrophages.
Hypoxia potentiates palmitate-induced pro-inflammatory activation of primary human macrophages
(2015)
Pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted by adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) contribute to chronic low-grade inflammation and obesity-induced insulin resistance. Recent studies have shown that adipose tissue hypoxia promotes an inflammatory phenotype in ATMs. However, our understanding of how hypoxia modulates the response of ATMs to free fatty acids within obese adipose tissue is limited. We examined the effects of hypoxia (1% O2) on the pro-inflammatory responses of human monocyte-derived macrophages to the saturated fatty acid palmitate. Compared with normoxia, hypoxia significantly increased palmitate-induced mRNA expression and protein secretion of IL-6 and IL-1β. Although palmitate-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and nuclear factor κB pathway activation were not enhanced by hypoxia, hypoxia increased the activation of JNK and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in palmitate-treated cells. Inhibition of JNK blocked the hypoxic induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, whereas knockdown of hypoxia-induced transcription factors HIF-1α and HIF-2α alone or in combination failed to reduce IL-6 and only modestly reduced IL-1β gene expression in palmitate-treated hypoxic macrophages. Enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine production and JNK activity under hypoxia were prevented by inhibiting reactive oxygen species generation. In addition, silencing of dual-specificity phosphatase 16 increased normoxic levels of IL-6 and IL-1β and reduced the hypoxic potentiation in palmitate-treated macrophages. The secretome of hypoxic palmitate-treated macrophages promoted IL-6 and macrophage chemoattractant protein 1 expression in primary human adipocytes, which was sensitive to macrophage JNK inhibition. Our results reveal that the coexistence of hypoxia along with free fatty acids exacerbates macrophage-mediated inflammation.
Loss of HIF-1α in macrophages attenuates AhR/ARNT-mediated tumorigenesis in a PAH-driven tumor model
(2016)
Activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) and macrophage infiltration of solid tumors independently promote tumor progression. As little is known how myeloid HIF affects tumor development, we injected the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and procarcinogen 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA; 100 μg/100 μl) subcutaneously into myeloid-specific Hif-1α and Hif-2α knockout mice (C57BL/6J) to induce fibrosarcomas (n = 16). Deletion of Hif-1α but not Hif-2α in macrophages diminished tumor outgrowth in the MCA-model. While analysis of the tumor initiation phase showed comparable inflammation after MCA-injection, metabolism of MCA was impaired in the absence of Hif-1α. An ex vivo macrophage/fibroblast coculture recapitulated reduced DNA damage after MCA-stimulation in fibroblasts of cocultures with Hif-1α LysM-/- macrophages compared to wild type macrophages. A loss of myeloid Hif-1α decreased RNA levels of arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR)/arylhydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) targets such as Cyp1a1 because of reduced Arnt but unchanged Ahr expression. Cocultures using Hif-1α LysM-/- macrophages stimulated with the carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA; 2 μg/ml) also attenuated a DNA damage response in fibroblasts, while the DNA damage-inducing metabolite DMBA-trans-3,4-dihydrodiol remained effective in the absence of Hif-1α. In chemical-induced carcinogenesis, HIF-1α in macrophages maintains ARNT expression to facilitate PAH-biotransformation. This implies a metabolic activation of PAHs in stromal cells, i.e. myeloid-derived cells, to be crucial for tumor initiation.
Obesity-associated insulin resistance is driven by inflammatory processes in response to metabolic overload. Obesity-associated inflammation can be recapitulated in cell culture by exposing macrophages to saturated fatty acids (SFA), and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress responses essentially contribute to pro-inflammatory signalling. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central metabolic regulator with established anti-inflammatory actions. Whether pharmacological AMPK activation suppresses SFA-induced inflammation in a human system is unclear. In a setting of hypoxia-potentiated inflammation induced by SFA palmitate, we found that the AMP-mimetic AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) potently suppressed upregulation of ER stress marker mRNAs and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, AICAR inhibited macrophage ER stress responses triggered by ER-stressors thapsigargin or tunicamycin. Surprisingly, AICAR acted independent of AMPK or AICAR conversion to 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranosyl monophosphate (ZMP) while requiring intracellular uptake via the equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) ENT1 or the concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT) CNT3. AICAR did not affect the initiation of the ER stress response, but inhibited the expression of major ER stress transcriptional effectors. Furthermore, AICAR inhibited autophosphorylation of the ER stress sensor inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α), while activating its endoribonuclease activity in vitro. Our results suggest that AMPK-independent inhibition of ER stress responses contributes to anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic effects of AICAR.
5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) is an established pharmacological activator of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Both, AICAR and AMPK were reported to attenuate inflammation. However, AICAR is known for many AMPK-independent effects, although the mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here we report a potent suppression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory gene expression by AICAR in primary human macrophages, which occurred independently of its conversion to AMPK-activating 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranosyl monophosphate. Although AICAR did not interfere with activation of cytosolic signalling cascades and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor - κB (NFκB) by LPS, it prevented the recruitment of NFκB and RNA polymerase II to target gene promoters. AICAR also inhibited signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)-dependent induction of interleukin (IL) IL-6 and IL-10 targets, while leaving STAT6 and HIF1α-dependent gene expression in IL-4 and dimethyloxalylgylcine-treated macrophages intact. This points to a transcription factor-specific mode of action. Attenuated gene expression correlated with impaired NFκB and STAT3, but not HIF-binding in electrophoretic mobility shift assays in vitro. Conclusively, AICAR interferes with DNA binding of NFκB and STAT3 to modulate inflammatory responses.
Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase (ALOX15) and arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase, type B (ALOX15B) catalyze the dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids and are upregulated in human alternatively activated macrophages (AAMs) induced by Th2 cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4) and/or interleukin-13. Known primarily for roles in bioactive lipid mediator synthesis, 15-lipoxygenases (15-LOXs) have been implicated in various macrophage functions including efferocytosis and ferroptosis. Using a combination of inhibitors and siRNAs to suppress 15-LOX isoforms, we studied the role of 15-LOXs in cellular cholesterol homeostasis and immune function in naïve and AAMs. Silencing or inhibiting the 15-LOX isoforms impaired sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)-2 signaling by inhibiting SREBP-2 processing into mature transcription factor and reduced SREBP-2 binding to sterol regulatory elements and subsequent target gene expression. Silencing ALOX15B reduced cellular cholesterol and the cholesterol intermediates desmosterol, lanosterol, 24,25-dihydrolanosterol, and lathosterol as well as oxysterols in IL-4-stimulated macrophages. In addition, attenuating both 15-LOX isoforms did not generally affect IL-4 gene expression but rather uniquely impacted IL-4-induced CCL17 production in an SREBP-2-dependent manner resulting in reduced T cell migration to macrophage conditioned media. In conclusion, we identified a novel role for ALOX15B, and to a lesser extent ALOX15, in cholesterol homeostasis and CCL17 production in human macrophages.
Oxidized phospholipids (oxPAPC) induce endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. Here we show that oxPAPC induce a gene network regulating serine-glycine metabolism with the mitochondrial methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase (MTHFD2) as a causal regulator using integrative network modeling and Bayesian network analysis in human aortic endothelial cells. The cluster is activated in human plaque material and by atherogenic lipoproteins isolated from plasma of patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the MTHFD2-controlled cluster associate with CAD. The MTHFD2-controlled cluster redirects metabolism to glycine synthesis to replenish purine nucleotides. Since endothelial cells secrete purines in response to oxPAPC, the MTHFD2-controlled response maintains endothelial ATP. Accordingly, MTHFD2-dependent glycine synthesis is a prerequisite for angiogenesis. Thus, we propose that endothelial cells undergo MTHFD2-mediated reprogramming toward serine-glycine and mitochondrial one-carbon metabolism to compensate for the loss of ATP in response to oxPAPC during atherosclerosis.