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Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden ausgewählte 5’- und 3’-untranslatierte Regionen (UTRs) von mRNAs aus H. volcanii bestimmt. Dieses Datenset wurde verwendet um (1) haloarchaeale UTRs zu charakterisieren, (2) Konsensuselemente für die Transkrikptionsinitiation und -termination zu verifizieren und (3) den Einfluss haloarchaealer UTRs auf die Initiation und Regulation der Translation zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass alle untersuchten Transkripte nichtprozessierte 3’-UTRs mit einer durchschnittlichen Länge von 45 Nukleotiden besitzen. Darüber hinaus konnte ein putatives Transkriptionsterminationssignal bestehend aus einem pentaU-Motiv mit vorausgehender Haarnadelstruktur identifiziert werden. Die Analysen der Regionen stromaufwärts der experimentell bestimmten Transkriptionsstarts führten zur Identifizierung dreier konservierter Promotor Elemente: Der TATA-Box, dem BRE-Element und einem neuen Element an Position -10/-11. Überraschenderweise bestand die TATA-Box nur aus vier konservierten Nukleotiden. Die Untersuchung der UTRs ergab, dass die größte Anteil der haloarchaealen Transkripte keine 5’-UTR besitzt. Falls eine 5’-UTR vorhanden ist, besitzen unerwarteterweise nur 15% der 5’-UTRs aus H. volcanii eine Shine-Dalgarno-Sequenz (SD-Sequenz). Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass verschiedene native und artifizielle 5’-UTRs ohne SD-Sequenz sehr effizient in vivo translatiert werden. Außerdem hat die Sekundärstruktur der 5’-UTR und die Position struktureller Elemente offenbar einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Translatierbarkeit von Transkripten. Die Insertion von Strukturelementen nahe des Startkodons führte zu einer vollkommenen Repression der Translation, während die proximale Insertion des Motivs an das 5’-Ende der 5’-UTR keinen Einfluss auf die Translationsseffizienz hatte. Zusammenfassend kann sowohl der eukaryotische Scanning-Mechanismus als auch die bakterielle Initiation der Translation über die SD-Sequenz für haloarchaeale Transkripte mit 5’-UTR ohne SD-Sequenz ausgeschlossen werden. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen bilden die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen zur Identifizierung eines entsprechenden dritten Mechanismus zur Initiation der Translation in H. volcanii. Eine aktuelle Studie zur globalen Analyse der Translationsregulation zeigte, dass der Anteil translational regulierter Gene in H. volcanii genauso hoch ist wie bei Eukaryoten (Lange et al., 2007). Um die Rolle haloarchaealer UTRs bei der Regulation der Translation zu charakterisieren, wurden die UTRs zweier ausgewählter translationsregulierter Gene untersucht. Es stellte sich heraus, dass nur die Anwesenheit beider UTRs, 5’- und 3’-UTR, zu einer Wachstumsphasen-abhängigen Regulation der Translation führt. Dabei hat die 3’-UTR allein keinen Einfluss auf die Translationseffizienz, während die 5’-UTR die Translationseffizienz in beiden Wachstumsphasen reduziert. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die 3’-UTR für die „Richtung“ der Regulation auf Translationsebene verantwortlich ist und putative Strukturelemente möglicherweise in den Regulationsmechanismus involviert sind. Zusammengefasst ergibt sich folgendes Modell der Translationsregulation in H. volcanii: Strukturierte 5’-UTRs führen zu einer Herabsetzung der konstitutiven Translationseffizienz. Dies kann differentiell durch regulatorische Faktoren kompensiert werden, welche spezifische Elemente der 3’-UTR binden. Sowohl natürliche als auch artifizielle Aptamere und allosterische Ribozyme stellen effektive Werkzeuge zur exogen kontrollierten Genexpression dar. Daher wurde die Anwendbarkeit eines Tetracyclin-induzierbaren Aptamers und eines konstitutiven Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii untersucht. Es stellte sich allerdings heraus, dass das Aptamer bereits ohne Tetracyclin starke inhibitorische Sekundärstrukturen ausbildet. Als Alternative wurden Reportergenfusionen mit einem selbstspaltenden Hammerhead-Ribozym konstruiert. Die selbstspaltende Aktivität des Hammerhead-Ribozyms in H. volcanii konnte erfolgreich in vivo demonstriert werden, was die Grundlage zur Entwicklung konditionaler Expressionssysteme basierend auf dem Hammerhead-Ribozym in H. volcanii bildet.
Summary The basal transcription apparatus of archaea is well characterized. However, much less is known about the mechanisms of transcription termination and translation initation. Recently, experimental determination of the 5´-ends of ten transcripts from Pyrobaculum aerophilum revealed that these are devoid of a 5´-UTR. Bioinformatic analysis indicated that many transcripts of other archaeal species might also be leaderless. The´-ends and 3´-ends of 40 transcripts of two haloarchaeal species, Halobacterium salinarum and Haloferax volcanii, have been determined. They were used to characterize the lengths of 5´-UTRs and 3´-UTRs and to deduce consensus sequence-elements for transcription and translation. The experimental approach was complemented with a bioinformatics analysis of the H. salinarum genome sequence. Furthermore, the influence of selected 5´-UTRs and 3´-UTRs on transcript stability and translational efficiency in vivo was characterized using a newly established reporter gene system, gene fusions, and real-time PCR. Consensus sequences for basal promoter elements could be refined and a novel element was discovered. A consensus motif probably important for transcriptional termination was established. All 40 haloarchaeal transcripts analyzed had a 3´-UTR (average size 57 nt), and their 3´-ends were not posttranscriptionally modified. Experimental data and genome analyses revealed that the majority of haloarchaeal transcripts are leaderless, indicating that this is the predominant mode for translation initiation in haloarchaea. Surprisingly, the 5´-UTRs of most leadered transcripts did not contain a Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence. A genome analysis indicated that less than 10% of all genes are preceded by a SD sequence and even most proximal genes in operons lack a SD sequence. Seven different leadered transcripts devoid of a SD sequence were efficiently translated in vivo, including artificial 5´-UTRs of random sequences. Thus, an interaction of the 5´-UTRs of these leadered transcripts with the 16S rRNA could be excluded. Taken together, either a scanning mechanism similar to the mechanism of translation initiation operating in eukaryotes or a novel mechanism must operate on most leadered haloarchaeal transcripts. Author Summary Expression of the information encoded in the genome of an organism into its phenotype involves transcription of the DNA into messenger RNAs and translation of mRNAs into proteins. The textbook view is that an mRNA consists of an untranslated region (5´-UTR), an open reading frame encoding the protein, and another untranslated region (3´-UTR). We have determined the 5´-ends and the 3´-ends of 40 mRNAs of two haloarchaeal species and used this dataset to gain information about nucleotide elements important for transcription and translation. Two thirds of the mRNAs were devoid of a 5´-UTR, and therefore the major pathway for translation initiation in haloarchaea involves so-called leaderless transcripts. Very unexpectedly, most leadered mRNAs were found to be devoid of a sequence motif believed to be essential for translation initiation in bacteria and archaea (Shine-Dalgarno sequence). A bioinformatic genome analysis revealed that less than 10% of the genes contain a Shine-Dalgarno sequence. mRNAs lacking this motif were efficiently translated in vivo, including mRNAs with artificial 5´-UTRs of total random sequence. Thus, translation initiation on these mRNAs either involves a scanning mechanism similar to the mechanism operating in eukaryotes or a totally novel mechanism operating at least in haloarchaea.
Recently a first genome-wide analysis of translational regulation using prokaryotic species had been performed which revealed that regulation of translational efficiency plays an important role in haloarchaea. In fact, the fractions of genes under differential growth phase-dependent translational control in the two species Halobacterium salinarum and Haloferax volcanii were as high as in eukaryotes. However, nothing is known about the mechanisms of translational regulation in archaea. Therefore, two genes exhibiting opposing directions of regulation were selected to unravel the importance of untranslated regions (UTRs) for differential translational control in vivo. Differential translational regulation in exponentially growing versus stationary phase cells was studied by comparing translational efficiencies using a reporter gene system. Translational regulation was not observed when 5'-UTRs or 3'-UTRs alone were fused to the reporter gene. However, their simultaneous presence was sufficient to transfer differential translational control from the native transcript to the reporter transcript. This was true for both directions of translational control. Translational regulation was completely abolished when stem loops in the 5'-UTR were changed by mutagenesis. An “UTR-swap” experiment demonstrated that the direction of translational regulation is encoded in the 3'-UTR, not in the 5'-UTR. While much is known about 5'-UTR-dependent translational control in bacteria, the reported findings provide the first examples that both 5'- and 3'-UTRs are essential and sufficient to drive differential translational regulation in a prokaryote and therefore have to functionally interact in vivo. The current results indicate that 3'-UTR-dependent translational control had already evolved before capping and polyadenylation of transcripts were invented, which are essential for circularization of transcripts in eukaryotes.
Background The connection of the variable part of the heavy chain (VH) and and the variable part of the light chain (VL) by a peptide linker to form a consecutive polypeptide chain (single chain antibody, scFv) was a breakthrough for the functional production of antibody fragments in Escherichia coli. Being double the size of fragment variable (Fv) fragments and requiring assembly of two independent polypeptide chains, functional Fab fragments are usually produced with significantly lower yields in E. coli. An antibody design combining stability and assay compatibility of the fragment antigen binding (Fab) with high level bacterial expression of single chain Fv fragments would be desirable. The desired antibody fragment should be both suitable for expression as soluble antibody in E. coli and antibody phage display. Results Here, we demonstrate that the introduction of a polypeptide linker between the fragment difficult (Fd) and the light chain (LC), resulting in the formation of a single chain Fab fragment (scFab), can lead to improved production of functional molecules. We tested the impact of various linker designs and modifications of the constant regions on both phage display efficiency and the yield of soluble antibody fragments. A scFab variant without cysteins (scFabdeltaC) connecting the constant part 1 of the heavy chain (CH1) and the constant part of the light chain (CL) were best suited for phage display and production of soluble antibody fragments. Beside the expression system E.coli, the new antibody format was also expressed in Pichia pastoris. Monovalent and divalent fragments (DiFabodies) as well as multimers were characterised. Conclusion A new antibody design offers the generation of bivalent Fab derivates for antibody phage display and production of soluble antibody fragments. This antibody format is of particular value for high throughput proteome binder generation projects, due to the avidity effect and the possible use of common standard sera for detection.