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The present work wishes to contribute with information on two members of the primary active transporter group, which differ both in structure and function: Wilson Disease Protein which uses the energy released by ATP hydrolysis to transport copper across cell membranes, and Proteorhodopsin, which uses the energy of light to build up a proton gradient across the bacterial cell membrane, both heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The surface detection experiments using HA-tagged WNDP confirm the proposed topology of WNDP. The HA-tag per se does not interfere with the function of WNDP, as shown for WNDP HA56 by ATP-dependent phosphorylation after expression in Sf9 cells. Sequence modifications within the WNDP HA56 template-construct reveal some interesting features: i) the N-terminal domain, which contains the 6 metal binding sites, is not necessary for plasma membrane targeting; ii) elevated surface expression of WNDP was observed when the carboxy terminus containing the tri-Leu motif is missing, which suggests that this motif might be involved in the retrieval of the protein from the plasma membrane; iii) the mutations TGE>AAA (proposed to lock the protein in the E1 conformation and lead to constitutive plasma membrane localisation) and D1027A (phosphorylation deficient) did not interfere with the surface localisation of the protein; iv) the mutations CPC>SPS (copper transport deficient) and H1069Q (phosphorylation deficient, most common mutation in Wilson Disease) reduced plasma membrane expression to less then 50%. Western blot analysis shows that the overall expression level of all constructs is similar to that of the reference construct WNDP HA56. These findings suggest that motifs involved in copper binding and catalytic activity do not interfere with plasma membrane targeting of WNDP in Xenopus oocytes. However, the H1069Q mutation could interfere with the distribution of WNDP protein within the cells. In the case of Proteorhodopsin, data presented in this work support earlier observations according to which proteorhodopsin can operate as an outwardly and inwardly directed light-driven ion pump. The residues proposed to play the roles of proton donor (E108) and acceptor (D97) are important for proton translocation. In the absence of an anionic residue at position 97 no outward pumping takes place, but inward charge translocation may occurs under appropriate conditions. An M-like state similar to that known from BR detectably accumulates under neutral pH conditions or under conditions where reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasmic side is slowed down, as in case of the mutants at position 108. Under acidic conditions PR pumps inwardly under the concerted action of pH and transmembrane potential. The experiments performed in parallel with PR and BR wild-types brought not only interesting information about similarities and differences between the two retinylidene ion pumps, but also led to the observation that the life-time of the M state in BR wild-type can be extended in addition to hyperpolarising transmembrane potentials also by extracellular acidic pH, when the proton gradient through the cell membrane is directed opposite to the ion transport (i.e. when the electrochemical gradient opposing the direction of proton transport increases). Direct photocurrent measurements of HA-tagged PR and BR have shown that the inserted tag may interfere with the functionality of the protein. Next to E108 and D97 in PR other residues in the vicinity of the retinal binding pocket contribute to the translocation of protons, as exemplified by the mutant L105Q: additionally to changing the absorption maximum of the protein, this mutant is a less effective proton pump than the wild type. The example of PR suggests that transduction of light energy by – and reaction mechanisms of retinylidene ion pumps have not been entirely deciphered by the extensive studies of bacteriorhodopsin.
Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) account for 20-40% of all open reading frames in fully sequenced genomes and they are target of approximately 60% of all modern drugs. So far, cellular expression systems are often very insufficient for the high-level production of IMPs. Toxic effects, instability or formation of inclusion bodies are frequently observed effects that prevent the synthesis of sufficient amounts of functional protein. I have successfully established an individual cell-free (CF) expression system to overcome these IMP synthesis difficulties. The CF system was established in two different expression modes. If no hydrophobic compartment is provided, the IMPs precipitate in the reaction mixture. Interestingly, these insoluble proteins are found to differ from inclusion bodies as they readily solubilize in mild detergents and the bacterial small multi drug transporter EmrE, expressed in the insoluble mode was shown to reconstitute into liposomes in an active form. Alternatively, IMPs can be synthesized in a soluble way by supplementing the CF system with detergents. A comprehensive overview of 24 commonly used detergents was provided by analyzing their impact on the CF system as well as their ability to keep three structurally very different proteins in solution. The class of long chain polyoxyethylene-alkyl-ethers turned out to be most suitable for soluble expression of a-helical EmrE, the bacterial b-barrel type nucleoside transporter Tsx and the porcine vasopressin receptor type 2, resulting in several mg of protein per mL of reaction mixture. So far IMPs have almost completely been excluded from solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. I could demonstrate that CF expression enables efficient isotopic labeling of IMPs for NMR analysis and further facilitates selective labeling strategies with combinations of 13C and 15N enriched amino acids that have not been feasible before. Four different G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were successfully CF expressed in preparative scale and for the human endothelin B receptor (ETB), ligand binding ability was observed. A series of truncated ETB derivatives containing nested terminal deletions have been CF produced and functionally characterized. The core area essential for Endothelin-1 binding as well as a central region responsible for ETB oligomer formation was confined to a 39 amino acid fragment including the proposed transmembrane segment 1. The binding constant (KD) of ETB was determined to 6 nM for circular ET-1 by SPR and 29 nM for linear ET-1 by TIRFS. This data indicate a large potential of the established individual CF expression system for functional IMP synthesis.
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) from the largest family of receptors in the human body. They contain seven transmembrane helices. There are roughly 800-900 GPCR genes expressed in humans encoded by 4-5% of the human genome. These receptors are the most important signal transducers and play a crucial role in cell physiology and pathology, by using various extracellular stimuli to start complex intracellular signaling. GPCRs interact with a wide variety of stimuli from small molecules (photons, ions, amines) to large molecules (peptides, small proteins), and trigger downstream cascade effects by interacting with G-proteins, GPCR kinases, and ß-arrestin. Because of their crucial roles in many cellular functions, GPCRs are the most important drug targets for the pharmaceutical industry. Approximately 30% of the clinically approved drugs available in the market are against GPCRs. In this work achieved successful expression and purification of GPCRs from class-C and class-A families. Combined with biochemical experiments, DNP-ssNMR, and molecular simulation helped to decipher the mechanism of crosstalk between the allosteric modulator, and the orthosteric binding sites of the peptide receptor. The main findings and major highlights of this dissertation are outlined in the following paragraphs.
The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) belongs to the GPCR class-C family and contains a large extracellular domain. This receptor regulates Ca2+ homeostasis in blood and its absorption in the kidney and bone. To understand the molecular and structural mechanisms of these receptors their cDNAs were cloned into the pPICZ and pOET1 vectors to express them in Pichia pastoris and in Sf9 insect cells respectively. The CaSR was successfully expressed heterologously in Pichia pastoris and in the insect cell with high yield. The purified receptor purified in LMNG shows no aggregation in a monomeric state. Further optimization was performed to use it for cryo-EM sample preparation and structure determination. In 2nd part of the thesis, different mini G (mini Gs, mini Gi, mini Gqs, and mini Gsi) DNA constructs were made and expressed in E. coli. It's challenging to obtain active GPCR structures due to the instability of G-protein or G-protein-bound receptors. In this work, all mini-G proteins and chimera mini-G-protein-maltose binding protein (MBP) were cloned and expressed in E. coli and purified with a His-trap column with high purity.
In the last part of the thesis, to decipher the mechanism of allosteric modulation of orthosteric binding sites in the bradykinin receptor was produced and characterized in insect cells. Angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), are very important drugs and are widely used for the treatment of hypertension, congestive heart failure, and diabetic neuropathy. These drugs target primarily the catalytic zinc center of the ACE. It has been shown that enalaprilat, a well-known ACEI, binds to a proposed zinc-binding site on hB1R and even directly activates the receptor. To obtain information on the influence of ACEIs on the receptor-peptide complex, and to have a better understanding of the molecular mechanism and structural plasticity of the bradykinin receptor and PAM, we used the three commercially available ACEIs captopril, enalaprilat, and lisinopril for our studies. An important result of this thesis is that though enalaprilat, captopril, and lisinopril all have similar functional properties in humans, each one regulates the orthosteric binding site of hB1R in a unique way. These findings provide atomic insights into the allosteric modulation of the bradykinin receptor. This study along with the effects of ACEI on the binding sites of receptors also deciphers the effects of the Zn2+ as well as the crosstalk between zinc binding sites and ACEI compounds. The binding of allosteric modulators induces distinct endogenous binding, which might aid in creating new possibilities in the pharmaceutical field.
Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) ist eines der Schlüsselenzyme der Leukotrienbiosynthese. Sie katalysiert zunächst die Umsetzung der freigesetzten Arachidonsäure(AA) zu 5-Hydroperoxyeicosatetraensäure (5-HpETE), in einem zweiten Reaktionsschritt wandelt sie diese in Leukotrien A4 (LTA4) um. Leukotriene sind potente Entzündungsmediatoren und spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei entzündlichen und allergischen Reaktionen. Außerdem wird die Beteiligung an verschiedenen Krebsarten kontrovers diskutiert.
Sie besteht aus 673AS, ist 78 kDa schwer und gliedert sich wie alle bisher bekannten Lipoxygenasen in eine N-terminale C2-ähnliche, regulatorische Domäne(AS 1–114) (C2ld), die für die Membran- und Calciumbindung sowie die Interaktion mit dem Coactosin-like Protein (CLP) verantwortlich ist, und in eine C-terminale, katalytische Domäne (AS 121–673), die das Nicht-Häm-gebundene Eisen im aktiven Zentrum trägt. Ein weiteres Strukturmerkmal sind zwei ATP-Bindungsregionen, eine befindet sich in der C2ld (AS 73–83), die andere auf der katalytischen Domäne (AS 193–209), das molare Verhältnis von 5-LO zu ATP konnte dabei auf 1:1 festgelegt werden [167].
Bereits 1982 wurde in einer Veröffentlichung von Parker et al. beschrieben, dass 5-LO aus Rattenzellen in Gegenwart von Calcium auf einer Gelfiltration dimerisieren kann [204], 2008 schließlich wurde von Aleem et al. publiziert, dass humane 12-LO aus Thrombozyten Dimere bilden kann [219]. Somit konnte es möglich sein, dass auch die humane 5-LO zur Dimerisierung fähig ist.
Zunächst wurde aufgereinigtes Enzym mit nativer Gelelektrophorese und anschließender Coomassiefärbung oder Western Blot untersucht, dabei konnten mehrere Banden pro Bahn detektiert werden. Um dieses Phänomen weiter zu untersuchen, wurde im Anschluss eine Gelfiltration etabliert; da die C2ld der 5-LO recht hydrophob ist, war es nötig, 0,5% T20 zum Elutionspuffer PBS/EDTA zuzusetzen, da das Enzym ansonsten unspezifisch mit dem Säulenmaterial interagiert und für seine Größe zu spät eluiert hätte. In Anwesenheit von T20 eluierte 5-LO in zwei getrennten Peaks, die exakt zu den vorher mit Referenzproteinen bestimmten Elutionsvolumina des Monomers und Dimers passten. Weiter wurde getestet, ob niedermolekulare Substanzen einen Einfluss auf das Dimerisierungsverhalten haben, allerdings konnte weder durch Ca2+noch durch ATP eine Verstärkung der Dimerisierung beobachtet werden. Dahingegen konnte, nach Vorinkubation mit GSH und Diamid, das alleinige Monomer auf der Gelfiltration nachgewiesen werden, nach Vorinkubation nur mit Diamid, lag das gesamte Protein ausschließlich als Dimer vor. Durch Gelelektrophorese mit oder ohne Zusatz von ß-Mercaptoethanol und LILBID-MS konnte die Ausbildung von intermolekularen Disulfidbrücken bestätigt werden. Ein Bindungsassay mit radioaktivem 35S-GSH konnte die kovalente Bindung des GSH an die 5-LO bestätigen. Quantifizierungsstudien mit Ellmans Reagens zeigten, dass mindestens eins der Oberflächencysteine mit GSH modifiziert wurde. Die von der Gelfiltration erhaltenen Fraktionen wurden auf enzymatische Aktivität getestet und in allen 5-LO-haltigen Fraktionen konnte Aktivität gefunden werden. Leider war es nicht möglich, eine Aussage darüber zu treffen, ob das Mono- oder das Dimer aktiver war. Es liegt offenbar in einem Fließgleichgewicht vor, da erneute Injektion des Monomerpeaks im bekannten Elutionsprofil aus zwei Peaks resultierte. Außerdem führt die Anwesenheit von 0,5% T20 während des Aktivitätstests zu einer Hemmung des Enzyms und weniger detektierbaren 5-LO-Produkten; es fiel vor allem auf, dass so gut wie keinerlei trans- und epitrans-LTB4, die nicht-enzymatischen Zerfallprodukte der 5-HpETE, nachzuweisen waren. Betrachtet man die Struktur der 5-LO, so findet man zehn Cysteine an der Oberfläche; die Cysteine 159, 300, 416 und 418 liegen dabei in einem Interface. Mutiert man diese Cysteine zu Serinen, so verschwindet der Dimer-induzierende Effekt des Diamids, wohingegen die Mutante weiterhin glutathionylierbar bleibt. Interessanterweise zeigt diese Mutante auch eine wesentlich weniger ausgeprägte Hemmung durch T20. Um eine Aussage treffen zu können, ob auch 5-LO aus humanen Zellen Dimere bilden kann, wurde 5-LO-haltiger S100 aus polymorphkernigen Leukozyten (PMNL) untersucht. Dabei konnte mit Western Blot und einem Aktivitätsnachweis gezeigt werden, dass die 5-LO in einem breiten Bereich von der Gelfiltration eluiert. Das deutet darauf hin, dass sie in PMNL ebenfalls dimerisiert vorliegen kann. In Gegenwart von Ca2+kam es zu einer Verschiebung der 5-LO zu höhermolekularen Gewichten, wobei dieses Phänomen nicht bei S100 aus transformierten E.coli auftrat, was auf einen gerichteten Komplex nach Calciuminduktion in PMNL hindeutet.
Außerdem wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit der Bindemodus von Sulindac an die 5-LO mittels Crosslinking untersucht. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass konzentrationsabhängig der einfache Komplex aus 5-LO und CLP abnimmt, dafür aber ein hochmolekularer Komplex, der beide Enzyme enthält, entsteht. Weder das Prodrug Sulindac noch der weitere Metabolit Sulindacsulfon oder andere Inhibitoren, die ebenfalls an der C2ld angreifen sollen, zeigten diesen Effekt. Leider konnte nicht weiter geklärt werden, was diesen Effekt verursacht, allerdings liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass es zu einer Aggregation kommt. Weitere Untersuchungen könnten wichtige Hinweise auf das Design von neuen Arzneistoffen bringen, um selektivere und damit nebenwirkungsärmere Inhibitoren zu finden.
In the past decade, the optogenetic toolbox for the manipulation of ion currents and cNMP levels in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) expanded. However, the implemented tools for cAMP generation were soluble enzymes (euPAC, bPAC, IlaC22 k27 and PaaC) and thus they do not precisely mimic physiological cAMP signalling occurring in microdomains in close proximity to the plasma membrane. Here, cAMP is predominantly generated by membrane-bound adenylyl cyclases, that are located in microdomains together with G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), protein kinase A (PKA) and their targets, enabling spatially and temporal regulation of cAMP signalling. For this reason, one aim of this study was to develop and implement membrane bound photoactivatable adenylyl cyclases for the manipulation of cAMP mediated signalling in close proximity to the plasma membrane. For this purpose, the guanylyl cyclase domains of the Blastocladiella and Catenaria Cyclase Opsins (CyclOps) were mutated to adenylyl cyclases either by introducing the mutations E497K and C566D (abbreviated as (A-2x)) or by the mutations E497K, H564D, and C566T (abbreviated as (A-3x)).
To determine the nucleotide specificity switch from GTP to ATP and the extent of light-dependent cAMP generation, the engineered enzymes were expressed in body wall muscle cells of C. elegans and in vitro cNMP measurements using C. elegans extracts were performed. Here, the highest levels of light induced cAMP generation during sustained stimulation (0.5 mW/mm2; 470 nm, 15 min) were detected for the variants BeCyclOp(A-2x), YFP-BeCyclOp(A-2x), and YFP-CaCyclOp(A-2x) (39, 57, 40 nM, respectively), though they did not reach the extent produced by the soluble bPAC (142 nM). In contrast, low magnitudes of generated cAMP were measured for the versions BeCyclOp(A-3x) and CaCyclOp(A-2x) (8 and 7 nM, respectively). Importantly, no obvious residual cGMP and basal activity was ascertained for any of the engineered enzymes.
To assess their potential to trigger and modulate cAMP mediated cholinergic neurotransmission, and to evaluate the influence of cytosolic and membrane proximal optogenetic cAMP generation, the enzymes were expressed in cholinergic motor neurons and compared to the implemented soluble bPAC via locomotion behaviour analysis on solid and in liquid media. Photoactivation of BeCyclOp(A-2x), YFP-BeCyclOp(A-2x), and YFP-CaCyclOp(A-2x) caused similarly enhanced or even more potent behavioural changes (swimming and crawling) as bPAC, whereas a more rapidly decaying response was observed for the bPAC evoked effects. Moreover, an increased diversity of the behavioural output was detected for cytosolic cAMP production by bPAC, i.e. increased bending angles and a decreased body length.
Confocal fluorescence microscopy was performed to examine the expression levels of YFP-tagged enzymes in cholinergic neurons, whereas both YFP-CyclOp(A-2x)s were expressed at similar levels, but 1.4-fold lower relative to the soluble bPAC-YFP. To compare the amount of light-dependent cAMP generation bPAC and BeCyclOp(A-2x) at light conditions that match the conditions of the behavioural experiments (30 s), cAMP measurements using C. elegans extracts were performed, whereas BeCyclOp(A-2x) depicted a 4-fold lower amount of optogenetic cAMP production than the soluble bPAC.
In sum, local (membrane proximal) cAMP generation by the membrane-bound photoactivatable adenylyl cyclases may more specifically activate cAMP dependent neurotransmission of cholinergic motor neurons than cytosolic cAMP generation, i.e. an increased mobilization and priming/docking of synaptic vesicles and an increased filling of the synaptic vesicles with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and thus an increase in locomotion behaviour.
The optogenetic toolbox for the manipulation of cGMP mediated signalling in C. elegans consisted of the natural membrane-bound BeCyclOp and the artificial soluble bPGC. The latter generates cGMP with low efficiency and slow kinetics (~0.2 cGMP s-1), whereas BeCyclOp enables the production of much larger amounts of cGMP (L/D = 5000) at a high turnover rate (~17 cGMP s-1). Thus, one aim of this thesis was to implement a tool with features in between those of BeCyclOp and bPGC. Several orthologous CyclOps were assessed by Gao et al., 2015 for light-regulated cGMP production by in vitro assays based on the measurement of the cNMP content from CyclOp containing oocyte membranes. Here, CaCyclOp showed the highest ratio of light versus dark activity (L/D = 230) after BeCyclOp, and thus was selected for characterization in C. elegans...
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Dynamik zweier grundlegend verschiedener, deaktivierender Mechanismen von Retinalproteinen untersucht. In einem dritten Projekt wurde die Photodynamik einer Dreifachmutante von visuellem Rhodopsin erforscht, von der eine Mutation zu kongenitaler (angeborener) Nachtblindheit führt und zwei andere Mutationen das Protein über eine Disulfidbrücke stabilisieren. Die Ergebnisse dieser drei Projekte sind im Folgenden zusammengefasst.
Die Aktivität des mikrobiellen Proteorhodopsins als lichtgetriebene Protonenpumpe kann photoinduziert unterbunden werden. Dies erfolgt durch die Absorption von blauem Licht durch das Retinal bei deprotonierter Schiff‘schen Base. Vor dieser Arbeit war allerdings nur wenig über den Mechanismus und die Kinetik dieses Effekts bekannt. Das einzige Retinalprotein, an dem diese Deaktivierungsdynamik auf molekularer Ebene zeitaufgelöst untersucht wurde, ist Bakteriorhodopsin. Doch auch an diesem System wurde die ultraschnelle Primärreaktion in der photoinduzierten Deaktivierungsdynamik - die Photoisomerisierung des 13-cis-Retinals - bisher nicht zeitaufgelöst gemessen.
In dieser Arbeit wurde ein Weg gefunden, diesen Prozess auf einer Sub-Pikosekundenzeitskala zu detektieren. Dazu wurde eine Proteorhodopsinmutante genutzt, in der der primäre Protonendonor E108 durch Glutamin ersetzt ist. Diese Mutante weist eine signifikante Erhöhung der Lebensdauer des M-Intermediats auf. Im photostationären Gleichgewicht führt diese veränderte Kinetik zu einer erheblich erhöhten Akkumulation des Proteins im M-Zustand, die ausreicht, um photoinduzierte Absorptionsänderungen der Deaktivierungsdynamik sowohl im sichtbaren als auch im mittleren Infrarotbereich auf ultrakurzer Zeitskala zu detektieren. Dieses Projekt erfolgte in Kooperation mit dem Arbeitskreis Glaubitz (Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main).
Es zeigte sich, dass die Anregung des Retinals von Proteorhodopsin im M-Zustand zur Isomerisierung von 13-cis zu all-trans führt, die nach wenigen Pikosekunden abgeschlossen ist. Der zweite und abschließende Schritt ist die Reprotonierung der Schiff'schen Base. Es stellte sich heraus, dass dieser Prozess auf einer Nanosekundenzeitskala abläuft und über einen Protonentransfer vom primären Protonenakzeptor D97 zur Schiff'schen Base ermöglicht ist.
Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Methodik zur Untersuchung der deaktivierenden Photodynamik von Proteorhodopsin auf ultraschneller Zeitskala, könnte in Zukunft auf weitere mikrobielle Rhodopsine angewandt werden. So ist die Studie der Deaktivierungsdynamik von Channelrhodopsinen von großem Interesse für optogenetische Anwendungen. Eine lichtgesteuerte Kontrolle der Ionenkanalöffnung und -schließung sollte die Präzision in der Regulierung ionischer Permeation erheblich verbessern.
Die Proteorhodopsinmutante E108Q wurde außerdem in ihrer primären Photodynamik sowohl bei grünem als auch blauem Anregungslicht untersucht. Es zeigte sich in beiden Fällen eine Dynamik, die der des Wildtyps sehr ähnlich ist. Eine Beobachtung unterscheidet sich jedoch wesentlich vom Wildtyp. Das K-Intermediat der E108Q-Mutante scheint nach einigen hundert Pikosekunden zumindest partiell zu zerfallen, woraufhin sich eine Signatur im blauen Spektralbereich bildet. Blitzlichtphotolysemessungen lassen vermuten, dass diese blau absorbierende Species im zwei- bis dreistelligen Nanosekundenbereich wieder zerfallen sein muss.
Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Photozerfall von visuellem Rhodopsin. Es ist bekannt, dass die Signaltransduktion durch Wechselwirkung zwischen aktiviertem Rhodopsin und Arrestin unterbunden wird. Im ersten Abschnitt wurde der Einfluss der Arrestin-1-Variante p44 auf die Photodynamik visuellen, bovinen Rhodopsins untersucht. In einer Kooperation mit dem Arbeitskreis Schwalbe (Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main) konnte gezeigt werden, dass Arrestin erheblichen Einfluss auf die Zerfallsdynamik von Meta II und Meta III hat. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Wechselwirkung von p44 mit photoaktiviertem Rhodopsin eine erhöhte Population des Intermediats Meta III bewirkt, mit der Folge einer zweifach langsameren Freisetzungskinetik des all-trans-Retinals. Diese Beobachtung weist auf eine physiologische Rolle des Zustands Meta III in der Retinalhomöostase hin.
Gegenstand einer zweiten Studie mit dem Arbeitskreis Schwalbe ist zum einen die Rhodopsinmutation G90D, die mit kongenitaler (angeborener) stationärer Nachtblindheit zusammenhängt, und zum anderen die Doppelmutation N2C und D282C, die zur Ausbildung einer stabilisierenden Disulfidbrücke zwischen den im extrazellulären Bereich eingeführten Cysteinen führt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde die Photodynamik des Wildtyps, der Doppelmutante und der stabilisierten G90D-Mutante (Mutationen G90D, N2C und D282C) sowohl auf einer ultrakurzen Zeitskala als auch auf einer Minutenskala untersucht.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) bacterial resistance to antibiotic drug therapy is emerging as a major public health problem around the world. Infectious diseases seriously threaten the health and economy of all countries. Hence, the preservation of the effectiveness of antibiotics is a world wide priority. The key to preserving the power of antibiotics lies in maintaining their diversity. Many microorganisms are capable of producing these bioactive products, the so called antibiotics. Specifically in microorganisms, polyketide synthases (PKS) and non-ribosomal peptide synthases (NRPS) produce these natural bioactive compounds. Besides being used as antibiotics these non-ribosomal peptides and polyketides display an even broader spectrum of biological activities, e.g. as antivirals, immunosuppressants or in antitumor therapy. The wide functional spectrum of the peptides and ketides is due to their structural diversity. Mostly they are cyclic or branched cyclic compounds, containing non-proteinogenic amino acids, small heterocyclic rings and other unusual modifications such as epimerization, methylation, N‐formylation or heterocyclization. It is has been shown that these modifications are important for biological activity, but little is known about their biosynthetic origin.
PKS and NRPS are multidomain protein assembly lines which function by sequentially elongating a growing polyketide or peptide chain by incorporating acyl units or amino acids, respectively. The growing product is attached via a thioester linkage to the 4’-phosphopantetheine (4’-Ppant) arm of a holo acyl carrier protein (ACP) in PKSs or holo peptidyl carrier protein (PCP) in NRPSs and is passed from one module to another along the chain of reaction centers. The modular arrangement makes PKS and NRPS systems an interesting target for protein engineering. More than 200 novel polyketide compounds have already been created by module swapping, gene deletion or other specific manipulations. Unfortunately, however, engineered PKS often fail to produce significant amounts of the desired products. Structural studies may faciliate yield improvement from engineered systems by providing a more complete understanding of the interface between the different domains. While some information about domain-domain interactions, involving the most common enzymatic modules, ketosynthase and acyltransferase, is starting to emerge, little is known about the interaction of ACP domains with other modifying enzymes such as methyltransferases, epimerases or halogenases.
To further improve the understanding of domain-domain interactions this work focuses on the curacin A assembly line. Curacin A, which exhibits anti-mitotic activity, is from the marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. This outstanding natural product contains a cyclopropane ring, a thiazoline ring, an internal cis double bond and a terminal alkene. The biosynthesis of curacin A is performed by a 2.2 Mega Dalton (MDa) hybrid PKS-NRPS cluster. A 10-enzyme assembly catalyzes the formation of the cyclopropane moiety as the first building block of the final product. Interestingly, for these enzymes the substrate is presented by an unusual cluster of three consecutive ACPs (ACPI,II,III). Little is known about the function of multiple ACPs which are supposed to increase the overall flux for enhanced production of secondary metabolites.
The first task in this work was to elucidate the structural effect of the triplet ACP repetition by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The initial data show that the excised ACPI, ACPII or ACPIII proteins resulted in [15N, 1H]-TROSY spectra with strong chemical shift perturbations (CSPs), suggesting an effect on the structure. The triplet ACP domains display a high sequence identity (93- 100%) making structural investigation using usual NMR techniques due to high peak overlap impossible. To enable the investigation of the triplet ACP in its native composition we developed a powerful method, the three fragment ligation. Segmental labeling allows incorporating isotopes into one single domain in its multidomain context. As a result we could prepare the triplet ACP with only one domain isotopically labeled and therefore assign the full length protein. In this way our method paved the way to study the structural effects of the triplet ACP repetition. We could show unexpectedly, that, despite the fact that the triplet repeat of CurA ACPI,II,III has a synergistic effect in the biosynthesis of CurA, the domains are structurally independent.
In the second part of this work, we studied the structure of the isolated ACPI domain. Our results show that the CurA ACPI undergoes no major conformational changes upon activation via phosphopantetheinylation and therefore contradicts the conformational switching model which has been proposed for PCPs. Further we report the NMR solution structures of holo-ACPI and 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-ACPI. Data obtained from filtered nuclear overhauser effect (NOE) experiments indicate that the substrate HMG is not sequestered but presented on the ACP surface.
In the third part of this work we focussed on the protein-protein interactions of the isolated ACPI with its cognate interaction partners. We were especially interested in the interaction with the halogenase (Cur Hal), the first enzyme within the curacin A sub-cluster, acting on the initial hydroxyl-methyl-glutaryl (HMG) attached to ACPI. Primarily we studied the interaction using NMR titration and fluorescence anisotropy measurements. Surprisingly no complex between ACPI and Cur Hal could be detected. The combination of an activity assay using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectroscopy and mutational analysis revealed several amino acids of ACPI that strongly decrease the activity of CurA Hal. Mapping these mutations according to their effect on the Cur Hal activity onto the structure of HMG-ACPI displays that these amino acids surround the substrate and form a consecutive surface. These results suggest that this surface is important for Cur Hal recognition and selectivity. Our research presented herein is an excellent example for protein-protein interactions in PKS systems underlying a specific recognition process.
The development of resistance to multiple drugs is a major problem in treatment of number of infectious diseases and cancer. The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is based on the synergetic interplay of a number of mechanisms such as target inactivation, target alteration, prevention of drug influx as well as active extrusion of drugs from the cell. The latter is mediated by over-expression of multidrug efflux pumps. The first discovered and the best characterized until now the human MDR transporter is P-glycoprotein. It is a member of the ATP binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and acts as an active transporter for a variety of anticancer agents using the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. The closest structure and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein found in bacteria is LmrA from Lactococcus lactis. The major goals of this work are to establish the selective isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis, to optimize LmrA sample preparation for solid-state NMR, and finally to perform first solidstate NMR investigations on LmrA shedding light on its catalytic cycle and substrate binding. For a long time the solid-state NMR applications to biological science has been limited to investigation of small molecules mostly. Recently, the solid-state NMR methods have shown potential for structuraland non-perturbing, site directed functional studies of large membrane proteins as well as ligands bound to them. However, to our knowledge neither selective isotope amino acid labelling of any ABC transporter, nor NMR investigations on full-length ABC transporter have been reported to date. Solidstate NMR experiments on a membrane protein require reconstitution of purified proteins into a membrane environment at a high density and either isotopic enrichment of the protein or bound drugs or inhibitors. Therefore, the large quantities of LmrA reconstituted at a high density in lipid membranes, sufficient for advanced NMR studies have been produced and its functional state in reconstituted form has been assessed. In the next step, a procedure for cost effective selective amino acids isotope labelling of LmrA in Lactococcus lactis has been established. Using this protocol deuterium alanine labelled LmrA reconstituted into E. coli liposomes has been prepared. Deuterium NMR has been used extensively to assess the proteins dynamics in past. However, it has never been applied to ABC transporter. Here, we report 2H NMR on selective alanine isotope labelled LmrA which has been used to shed light on the dynamics changes in the protein occurred under AMP-PNP, non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, binding and in ATP/ADP-Vanadate trapped state. It has been found that the major conformation changes affecting the protein motional characteristics occur in the ATP binding domains but not in the transmembrane domains. Additionally, the binding of several substrates to LmrA has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy as well as by 19F and 31P solid-state NMR. The binding constants for several LmrA substrates have been obtained by fitting the concentration dependant tryptophan intrinsic fluorescence quenching curves. Based on the fluorescence studies and solid-state NMR data, the conformation changes in LmrA under substrate binding have been discussed. In addition, the preferable location of nine LmrA and P-glycoprotein substrates within the model membrane has been studied via 1H-MAS-NOESY-NMR. The results have been interpreted with respect to LmrA and P-glycoprotein binding site accessibility from the membrane interface region.
Die Kernspinresonanz(NMR)-Spektroskopie ist ein leistungsstarkes analytisches Werkzeug. Allerdings ist ihre Empfindlichkeit aufgrund geringer Wechselwirkungs-energie zwischen den Kernspins und dem externen Magnetfeld begrenzt. Die dynamische Kernpolarisation (DNP) erhöht DNP die Empfindlichkeit der NMR, indem sie die Polarisation von ungepaarten Elektronenspins auf die benachbarten Kernspins überträgt. In den letzten Jahrzehnten hat die DNP bei hohen Magnetfeldern erneut an Aufmerksamkeit gewonnen, bedingt durch die Verfügbarkeit leistungsstarker Gyrotron-Mikrowellen(mw)-Quellen. Jedoch wurde die Anwendung von DNP für Flüssigkeiten im Vergleich zu Festkörperproben bei niedrigen Temperaturen (≈100 K) weit weniger erforscht. Zwei Gründe können dafür hauptsächlich benennt werden. Bei hohen Magnetfeldern (entsprechend hohen mw-Frequenzen) wird die mw-Strahlung sehr stark von Flüssigkeiten absorbiert, was zu einer starken Erwärmung führt. Darüber hinaus sind die Translations- und Rotationsdynamik der Radikale und Target-Molekülen nicht schnell genug, um Spectraldichten bei den hohen mw-Frequenzen zu erzeugen, die für eine Overhauser-Effekt (OE) DNP Verstärkung benötigt werden. In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, Flüssigzustands-DNP bei hohen Magnetfeldern, insbesondere bei 9,4 T, mit hocheffizienten DNP-Probenköpfen möglich ist.
Der von skalaren Hyperfein-Wechselwirkung (hfWW) angetriebene OE ist für Flüssigzustands-DNP-Forschungen von besonderem Interesse, da der von der Theorie vorhergesagte Mechanismus auch bei hohen Magnetfeldern noch effizient ist. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine Methode zur Vorabprüfung potenzieller DNP-Kandidaten durch Messungen ihrer paramagnetischen NMR-Verschiebungen vorgeschlagen und untersucht. Wir beobachtete signifikante 13C-skalare OE DNP-Verstärkungen bis zu 50 bei den ausgewählten kleinen Biomolekülen, einschließlich Imidazol, Indol, verschiedene Aminosäuren und Kohlenhydraten. Das Lösungssystem wurde auch von organischen Lösungsmitteln auf Wasser erweitert.
Im Kontext von dipolarer OE DNP haben wir den Beitrag der Rotation des Radikals neben der Translationsbewegung zwischen Radikal und Target-Molekül zur OE DNP-Effizienz systematisch untersucht, indem wir verschiedene Nitroxidderivate mit unterschiedlichen Ringgeometrien und Substituenten verwendet haben. Mithilfe eines Models, das eine 'out-sphere' Translationsbewegung und eine 'inner-sphere' Rotationsbewegung des Radikal-Lösungsmittel-Komplexes enthält, konnte unsere Beobachtungen quantitativ simuliert werden. Außerdem wurde ein anderes Model untersucht, das eine Translationsbewegung mit der Rotation von Radikalen, bei denen das ungepaarte Elektron nicht im Zentrum sitzt, kombiniert.
Eine weitere neue Entdeckung in der DNP bei hohen Magnetfeldern waren der beobachtete SE (Solid-Effekt) an Lipidmolekülen mit BDPA-Radikal oberhalb der Lipidphasen-übergangstemperatur. Die neue Anwendung von SE DNP bietet einen alternativen Mechanismus zur OE DNP in Flüssigkeiten bei hohen Magnetfeldern und könnte möglicherweise auf Makromoleküle mit relativ langsamer Rotationsbewegung angewendet werden.
Wir haben zusätzliche Untersuchungen an den Lipiddoppelschichten mit Nitroxid-radikale durchgeführt, basierend auf dem beobachteten 1H DNP-Verstärkungen in einer viskosen Lipidumgebung bei 9,4 T . Durch Messung des Feldprofils wurden DNP-Verstärkungen durch OE und SE in Abhängigkeit ihrer relativen Verschiebungen von der Elektronen-Larmor-Frequenz bestimmt. Die individuelle OE DNP-Effizienzen für Protonen des Wassers, der Lipid-Cholin-Kopfgruppen oder der Lipid-Acylketten wurde bestimmt. Dadurch wird ein quantitativer Vergleich mit MD-Simulationen ermöglicht. Obwohl die von der MD-Simulationen vorhergesagten DNP Kopplungsfaktoren noch deutliche Abweichungen von den experimentellen Beobachtungen aufweisen, wird die schnelle Dynamik nahe der Elektronen-Larmor-Frequenz, die für einen erfolgreichen OE DNP Transfer erforderlich ist, von den MD-Simulationen gut erfasst.
In der Arbeit wurden auch zwei unterschiedliche Dreifachresonanz-DNP-Experimente durchgeführt. Zum einen wurde 13C OE DNP unter 1H-Entkopplung in wässriger Natriumpyruvatlösung, und zum anderen 13C-NMR von Glycin, verstärkt durch SE DNP an 1H zusammen mit einem 1H-13C INEPT-Polarisationstransfer, im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit durchgeführt.
The evolution of cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) over recent decades has made it a widely used system for expressing membrane proteins (MPs). Unlike traditional methods, CFPS allows direct and translocon-independent expression of MPs within lipid membranes, such as liposomes or nanodiscs (NDs), without the need for detergent solubilization. This open nature of CF systems enables customization of the experimental environment, including expression conditions, choice of nanoparticles (NPs), lipid composition, and addition of stabilizing molecules.
Membrane scaffold protein (MSP)-based NDs emerged as a gold standard for cotranslational solubilization of MPs using the CF-system. This approach allowed not only biochemical characterization, but also structural studies of MPs and even GPCRs. However, to solubilize MPs inside nanoparticles via the traditional reconstitution route, apart from MSPs other scaffolds were successfully implemented, e.g. the saposin A (commercially known as Salipro) scaffold system or the synthetic styrene maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs). In this study the potential of saposin A-based nanoparticles (SapNPs) was explored for cotranslational MP solubilization.
Three strategies for applying SapNPs in CF systems were investigated: preassembly, (i) coassembly (ii), and coexpression (iii). (i) Preassembly involved forming SapNPs before CF expression and adding them to the CF reaction. In coassembly mode SapA and lipids were mixed in the CF reaction for spontaneous assembly with the synthesized MP. In coexpression mode lipids were added to the CF reaction while coexpressing SapA with the MP target. Proteorhodopsin (PR) served as a model protein to evaluate these strategies due to its ability to oligomerize and straightforward quantification using the cofactor retinal. Preassembled SapNPs provided homogeneous, aggregate-free particles yielding up to 200 µM solubilized PR inside in the CF reaction. Coassembly was also successfully applied to produce PR/SapNP complexes at slightly lower yields, however the system was prone to produce soluble aggregates at too high PR template concentrations and overall needed more adjustments. Coexpression resulted in PR yields below 20 µM and was not considered viable for MP production. Finally, the preassembled SapNPs were used to produce functional G-protein coupled receptor probes. Despite lower overall performance compared to MSP-based systems, SapNPs showed potential as an alternative in CF systems for specific MPs.
The second optimization approach was directed at the CF lysate itself. CF synthesis for NMR analysis benefits from selective labeling schemes enabled by truncated amino acid (AA) metabolic pathways in lysates, reducing spectral ambiguity. However, residual enzymatic AA conversions persist, leading to label dilution and ambiguous NMR spectra. This study aimed to eliminate these residual activities in the E. coli A19 strain, generating optimized CF lysates for NMR applications.
The approach involved cumulative gene deletions of the most problematic scrambling enzymes. The new strain, “Stablelabel,” included deletions and modifications in genes asnA, ansA, ansB, glnA, aspC, and ilvE, effectively eliminating background activities of L-Asn, L-Asp, and conversions of L-Glu to L-Asp and L-Gln. However, residual conversion of L-Gln to L-Glu persisted due to glutaminase activity of several glutaminases using the inhibitor 6 diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON). Stablelabel showed a slightly slower growth than A19, and an overall good performance with 2.7 mg/mL GFP expressed in the reaction mixture (RM) compared to the parental A19 strain with 3.5 mg/mL. Furthermore, the strain was successfully applied to demonstrate methyl group labeling of MPs using preconverted L-val and L-leu from their respective precursors 2-ketoisovalerate and 4-methyl-2-oxovalerate.
In this study, lipid nanoparticle particle-and strain engineering vividly demonstrated the potential of CFPS systems and their versatility. While the SapNP system requires further engineering to potentially reach the efficiency of the well-studied MSP NDs, this study provides an example of nanoparticle characterization allowing new insights into NP behavior in CF systems. Furthermore, it was shown that strain engineering is a straightforward solution to tailor CF lysates to the individual requirements. After this thesis was submitted, Stablelabel in fact was successfully applied for backbone assignment of casein kinase 1, thereby demonstrating its suitability to express complex targets for NMR studies.