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This work investigated the influence of the CRISPR/Cas9 mediated knockout of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) on different adherent tumour cell lines derived from solid tumours. For this, the 5-LO expressing tumour cell lines HCT-116, HT-29, and U-2 OS were transiently transfected using a plasmid carrying the CRISPR/Cas9 complex sequence to the ALOX5 gene. Subsequently, cells were selected using Puromycin and analysed via Western blotting and DNA Sanger sequencing. Cells that were transfected with a control plasmid missing the guide RNA sequence, were used as a control for all experiments.
Differential gene expression analysis, performed after next-generation RNA sequencing, revealed that the expression of various genes was altered after the knockout of 5-LO. In HCT-116 cells, 28 genes were expressed differentially in all 5-LO knockout single-cell clones, while in HT-29 cells the expression of 18 genes and in U-2 OS cells of 234 genes was influenced by the knockout of 5-LO. These findings were validated by real-time qPCR. A lot of the genes that were influenced by the 5-LO knockout are known to be connected to epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT), a process necessary for tumour metastasis. The results from RNA sequencing were the starting point for further investigations. In the following, different aspects of the tumour cell lines were examined. In HT-29, as
well as in U-2 OS cells, it was shown that knockout of the 5-LO resulted in impaired cell proliferation. Also, the formation of three-dimensional tumour spheroids was altered. In HT-29 cells, the knockout of 5-LO increased the number of cells in spheroids. In contrast, in U-2 OS cells, the number of cells per spheroid was decreased, even though the diameter of the spheroids was increased, due to more loosely packed spheroids. The difference between 5-LO positive and negative U-2 OS cells became even more obvious after embedding the spheroids in an artificial extracellular matrix. In that scenario, cells lacking the 5-LO formed smaller spheroids that did not have the same ability to grow into the extracellular matrix as 5-LO positive cells did. Also, directed cell migration was strongly influenced by the knockout of 5-LO. In both, HCT-116 and U-2 OS cells, directed cell migration towards a serum gradient was increased in 5-LO knockout single-cell clones. Pharmacological inhibition of the enzyme was used to investigate, whether canonical or non-canonical functions were responsible for the previously mentioned effects.
Therefore, vector control cells were treated with the 5-LO inhibitors Zileuton and CJ-13610 in different concentrations. Interestingly, only some of the effects mediated by the complete knockout of 5-LO could be reproduced by inhibiting the enzyme, leading to the suggestion, that canonical, as well as non-canonical functions of 5-LO, play a role in these tumour cells.
To conclude, it was shown in this study, that 5-LO affects various cellular functions when expressed in adherent tumour cell lines. These cell line-dependent effects result in altered gene expression, enhanced proliferation, and spheroid formation, as well as impaired cell motility, and can be mediated by enzymatic activity as well as other non-canonical functions.
Macroautophagy, herein referred to as autophagy, is an evolutionarily conserved homeostatic process that normally occurs inside eukaryotic cells which involves degradation of cytoplasmic substances via lysosomes. It can be induced by various conditions such as starvation and drug exposure, as well as be inhibited by numerous compounds. Under normal conditions, the doublemembrane autophagosomes engulf the cytosolic substrates and deliver them to lysosomes for digestion. These substrates include unnecessary or dysfunctional cell components, such as faulty macromolecules, organelles and even invading pathogens. Autophagosomes are formed through the co-operative work of various autophagy-related (ATG) proteins organized into complexes. Upon closure of the autophagosomes, they fuse with the acidic lysosomes, resulting in formation of autolysosomes and the delivery of lysosomal hydrolases to degrade the engulfed contents. The fusion of the autophagosome with lysosome is carried out by specific SNARE proteins, small GTPases and their effectors including tethers, adaptors and motor proteins. Autophagy is impaired in many human diseases including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, aging and inflammation. Therefore, manipulation of autophagy pathway holds a great promise for new therapeutic applications ...
This work focused on the biosynthesis and characterization of esterified lipid mediators. Lipid mediators were generally thought to exert their effects as free molecules, and their esterification was regarded as a storage mechanism. However, more recent studies indicate that esterified lipid mediators are a distinct class of mediators. When this thesis started back in 2017, the idea of esterified lipids as a new class of mediators was relatively new so that respective compounds were either quite expensive or not commercially available at all. Therefore, a biosynthetic approach had to be established first to enable the study of the new lipid mediator class. Within the cell, esterified lipids are produced by activation and subsequent incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These steps are enzymatically catalyzed by members of the acyl-CoA synthetase family and the lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase family, respectively. Therefore, the enzymes acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 2 (LPCAT2) were selected for a biosynthetic approach due to their broad substrate acceptance.
In a first attempt, recombinant protein expression in E. coli was studied. While the expression and purification of C-terminally His6x-tagged ACSL4 resulted in a pure and active protein, the expression of LPCAT2 turned out quite troublesome. Although several expression and purification parameters were varied, including purification tags, buffer compositions, and chromatography strategies, successful purification of LPCAT2 was not achieved.
Instead, a second approach was studied. This time, stably transfected cells overexpressing ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 were generated from the human embryonal kidney (HEK) 293T cell line. Stably transfected cell lines were characterized on protein level and regarding their oxylipin profile. After confirming the overexpression and functionality of the enzymes, lipoxygenases (LOs) were co-expressed in a doxycycline-inducible manner to prevent premature cell death due to increased oxidative stress. As a result, LO product formation was enhanced and enabled the investigation of specific oxylipins. Since increased lipid peroxidation is also a key component of the ferroptosis cell death mechanisms, cell lines were investigated towards their cell viability. Indeed, expression of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 promoted cell death when treated with the ferroptosis inducers erastin or RSL3, even in the absence of LO expression. Furthermore, analysis by laser scanning confocal microscopy revealed that the localization of 15-LO1 was altered in the presence of LPCAT2, similar to treatment with RSL3 in vector control cells.
In conclusion, a stable overexpression system of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 was successfully established in HEK293T cells, which enabled the synthesis and characterization of esterified oxylipins. Interestingly, characterization of the cell lines revealed a correlation with the cell death mechanism ferroptosis. Although the expression of ACSL4 has already been reported as a biomarker for ferroptosis, this is the first time that a potential connection of LPCAT2 with ferroptosis was demonstrated. As a result, this may provide new therapeutic options for ferroptosis-related pathologies such as neurodegeneration, autoimmune diseases, or tumorigenesis.
This work aimed to investigate the regulation and activity of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), the central enzyme in leukotriene biosynthesis, in two colorectal cancer cell lines. The leukotriene pathway is positively correlated with the progression of several solid malignancies; however, factors regulating 5-LO expression and activity in tumors are poorly understood.
Cancer development, as well as cancer progression, are strongly dependent on the tumor microenvironment. In the conventional monolayer culture of cancer cell lines, cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions present in native tumors are absent. Furthermore, it is already known that various colon cancer cell lines dysregulate several important signaling pathways due to 3D growth. Therefore, the expression of the leukotriene cascade in HT-29 and HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells was investigated within a three-dimensional context using multicellular tumor spheroids to mimic a more physiological environment compared to conventional cell culture. Especially the expression of 5-LO, cPLA2α, and LTA4 hydrolase was altered due to threedimensional (3D) cell growth, which was investigated by qPCR and Western blot analysis. High cellular density in monolayer cultures led to similar results. The observed 5-LO upregulation was found inversely correlated with cell proliferation, determined by cell cycle analysis, and activation of PI3K/mTORC-2- and MEK-1/ERK-dependent pathways, determined using pharmacological pathway inhibition, stable shRNA knockdown cell lines, and analysis via qPCR and Western blot analysis. Following, the transcription factor E2F1 and its target gene MYBL2 were identified to play a role in the repression of 5-LO during cell proliferation. For this purpose, several stable MYBL2 over-expression and ALOX5 reporter cell lines were prepared and analyzed. Since 5-LO was already identified as a direct p53 target gene, the influence of p53, which is variably expressed in the cell lines (HT-29, p53 R273H mut; HCT-116 p53 wt; HCT-116 p53 KO), was investigated as well. Furthermore, HCT-116 cells carrying a p53 knockout were investigated. The PI3K/mTORC-2- and MEK-1/ERK-dependent suppression of 5-LO was also found in tumor cells from other origins (Capan-2, Caco-2, MCF-7), which was determined using pharmacological pathway inhibition and following analysis via qPCR. This suggests that the identified mechanism might apply to other tumor entities as well.
5-LO activity was previously described as attenuated in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells compared to polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which express a highly active 5-LO. However, the present study showed that the enzyme activity is indeed low but inducible in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells. Of note, the general lipid mediator profile and the mediator concentrations were comparable to those of M2 macrophages. Finally, the analysis of substrate availability in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells revealed a vast difference between formed metabolite concentrations and supplemented fatty acid concentrations, indicating that the substrates are either transformed into lipoxygenase-independent metabolites or are esterified into the cellular membrane.
In summary, the data presented in this work demonstrate that 5-LO expression and activity are tightly regulated in HT-29 and HCT-116 cells and fine-tuned due to environmental conditions. The cells suppress 5-LO during proliferation but upregulate the expression and activity of the enzyme under cellular stress-triggering conditions. This implies a possible role of 5-LO in manipulating the tumor stroma to support a tumor-promoting microenvironment.