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The baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a valuable and increasingly important microorganism for industrial applications (Hong and Nielsen, 2012). Its robustness concerning process conditions like low pH, osmotic and mechanical stress as well as toxic compounds is an advantage. Moreover, S. cerevisiae is ‘generally regarded as safe’ (GRAS). The model organism has been studied intensively. The collected data, including genomic, proteomic and metabolic information, can be used to genetically modify and improve its metabolism. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives have wide applications as biofuels, biomaterials, and other biochemicals. Several studies have been dealing with the overproduction of fatty acids and derivatives thereof in S. cerevisiae. The fatty acid biosynthesis starting with acetyl-CoA requires two enzymes, the acetyl-CoA carboxylase (Acc1p) and the fatty acid synthase complex (FAS), to produce acyl-CoA esters with predominantly 16 to 18 carbon atoms chain length (Lynen et al., 1980). For the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids in S. cerevisiae the ER bound acyl-CoA desaturase, Ole1p is essential (Tamura et al., 1976; Certik and Shimizu, 1999).
Using S. cerevisiae, the first section of this work dealt with the heterologous characterization of potential ω1-desaturases. Due to the fact that unsaturated fatty compounds can be modified further by hydrosilylations, hydrovinylations, oxidations to epoxides, acids, aldehydes, ketones or metathesis reactions, the interest in ω1-fatty acids is tremendous (Behr and Gomes, 2010). With the intention to find enzymes in fungi, that have a terminal desaturase activity a search in different genome databases was performed. The sequences of Pex-Desat3 and Obr-TerDes were used as reference sequences. The analysed proteins from Schizophyllum commune (EFI94599.1), Schizosaccharomyces octosporus (EPX72095.1), Wallemia mellicola (EIM20316.1), Wallemia ichthyophaga (EOR00207.1) and Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus (EKV44635.1), however, finally turned out to be Δ9 desaturases. A fungal desaturase with ω1-activity could not be found. The Δ9 desaturase SCD1 from Mus musculus was crystallized by Bai et al. (2015) and the information for specific amino acids responsible for the substrate specificity or enzyme activity were allocated. In combination with sequence and enzyme activity data form ChDes1 from Calanus hyperboreus, Desat2 from Drosophila melanogaster, Pex-Desat3 from Planotortrix excessana and Obr-TerDes from Operophtera brumata single amino acid exchanges were performed in the Δ9 desaturase Ole1p from S. cerevisiae. For all mutants, only fatty acids (C16 - C18) with a double bond between carbon C9 and C10 could be found. This indicates, that all inserted amino acid exchanges do not affect the substrate specificity or the position of the introduced double bond.
In the second section the focus was in the development of a production system for fatty acids in S. cerevisiae with regard to the previously established procedures by metabolic engineering. The combination of cytosolic malate dehydrogenase (MDH3), cytosolic malate enzyme (MAE1) and a citrate- α-ketoglutarate- carrier (YHM2) should improve the availability of acetyl-CoA in the cytosol, which is an important precursor for the fatty acid biosynthesis. If the major pathway (acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase) was already optimized by high expression levels than no positive effect on increased fatty acid synthesis was detectable. Only non-optimized strains, with the additional overexpression of ATP-citrate lyase and cytosolic malate dehydrogenase, lead to a 41 % (20 mg/g dcw) improvement of fatty acid synthesis. In order to increase the fatty acid content further, the additional overexpression of DGA1 and TGL3 was performed. Hence, the highest amount of fatty acids could be observed with the strain S. cerevisiae WRY1ΔFAA1ΔFAA4 (2.5 g/L ± 0.8 g/L). The additional elimination of acyl-CoA synthetase Fat1p did not improve the yield.
It was recently reported, that chain length control of the fatty acid synthesis of bacterial FAS can be changed by rational engineering (Gajewski et al., 2017a). The knowledge about bacterial FAS was transferred in this work to S. cerevisiae FAS. Mutating up to five amino acids in the FAS complex enabled S. cerevisiae to produce medium chain fatty acids (C6 - C12). Further improvement was done by metabolic pathway engineering (promoter of alcohol dehydrogenase II from S. cerevisiae (pADH2), deletion of acyl-CoA synthetase FAA2) and optimization of fermentation conditions (YEPD-bacto medium buffered with potassium phosphate). The production of medium chain fatty acids resulted in the highest yield of 464 mg/L (C6 to C12 fatty acids). Furthermore, strains were created specifically overproducing hexanoic acid (158 mg/L) and octanoic acid (301 mg/L). The characterization of transferases, which could be responsible for the de-esterification of CoA-bound fatty acids, was analysed in an additional approach. It could be shown, that the genes EHT1, EEB1 and MGL2 have an influence on the MCFA yield in the supernatant. Generally speaking, the data from the single and double deletion strains suggest that Eeb1p has a selective hydrolytic activity for hexanoic acid-CoA ester, while Eht1p shows selective hydrolytic activity for octanoic acid-CoA ester, which is in line with Saerens et al. (2006).
If the biotechnological production of chemicals can further replace or support regular synthetic chemistry, industry will be able to move away from fossil oils towards renewable sources. However, in many cases the much needed adaptation of biotechnological production systems is not yet developed to the necessary level.
For processes where short fatty acids (FA) are needed, as for example in the microbial production of biofuels in the gasoline range, protein engineering had not yet delivered feasible solutions. In this thesis, several approaches to introduce chain length control on type I fatty acid synthases (FAS) were established and made available in a publication and two patents. Therein, engineering was focused on rational design based on available structural information.
First, the type I FAS from C. ammoniagenes was used as a model enzyme to probe modifications on FAS in a low complex in vitro environment in order to gain information about structure-function relationships. At this stage, engineering was conducted in several rounds, first addressing possible ways to alter product distributions by changing substrate affinities through concise mutations in binding channels. Several FAS constructs were generated ranging from first successes, where short FA were produced as side products, to FAS where native chain length programming was overwritten and only short FA were produced.
Furthermore, another engineering target was addressed with the modification of domain-domain interactions on FAS. For its exploitation to direct synthesis, contact surfaces on catalytic domains were changed to interfere with acyl carrier protein binding. This channeling of the kinetic process on the enzyme led to similar successes and short FA became the primary product.
The two approaches have proven to be potent tools to introduce systems of chain length control in FAS. This rational engineering has the big advantage that it is mostly minimally invasive and due to the high conservation of de novo FA synthesis, individual mutations could easily be used in other FAS (and their organisms) as well. Even heterologous expression of modified FAS genes is feasible.
Engineering was not only tested in a defined in vitro environment and but also in S. cerevisiae as an exemplary in vivo system. The results eventually confirmed the in vitro findings and proved that the chosen engineering could be transferred to more complex systems. Even before any optimization for highest output, the titers of short FA from S. cerevisiae fermentation matched previous reports with 118 mg/L.
In sum, this work covers several layers from basic research to preliminary applications. The presented modifications to create short FA producing FAS can be a key step in synthesis pathways and will likely enable a whole range of new succeeding research. It can be seen as a valuable contribution towards establishing novel ways for the production of chemicals from renewable sources.
Das Ziel dieser Dissertation war es die biologische Rolle der Ubiquitinierung und die Bedeutung für Alterungsprozesse im filamentösen Ascomyceten Podospora anserina zu untersuchen. Folgende Ergebnisse wurden dabei erzielt:
1. Ubiquitinierte Proteine wurden nachgewiesen und die Deubiquitinierung von Proteinen konnte durch den Einsatz der Inhibitoren Urea, PR-619 und PIC erfolgreich inhibiert werden, was die Anwesenheit aktiver Deubiquitinasen in P. anserina beweist. Zudem wurden erstmalig ubiquitinierte Proteine in P. anserina unter den zur Aufreinigung
gewählten Bedingungen über die Technik der LC-MS/MS identifiziert.
2. Insgesamt wurden 1745 ubiquitinierte Proteine in P. anserina identifiziert, was ca. 16,4 % des gesamten Proteoms darstellt. Somit wurde erstmalig das Ubiquitinom des Ascomyceten P. anserina charakterisiert, welches Proteine aus allen zellulären Kompartimenten enthält.
3. Die erste im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführte umfassende Studie altersabhängiger Veränderungen im Ubiquitinom eines Organismus zeigt eine Herabregulation der Ubiquitinierung im Alter in der gesamten Zelle. Dem gegenüber steigt die Ubiquitinierung an den Mitochondrien leicht an und unterstreicht die Rolle einer mitochondrialen Qualitätskontrolle durch diesen Prozess.
4. Die Untersuchung der am Ubiquitinierungsprozess beteiligten E3-Ligase PaMUS10 zeigt, dass es sich bei Mus10 um ein essentielles Gen in P. anserina handelt, da die Deletion zu starken mitochondrialen Beeinträchtigungen und dem sofortigen Absterben des Organismus direkt nach der Keimung führt.
5. Zur weiteren Untersuchung von PaMus10 wurde erstmalig und vollständig ein Hygromycin-basiertes „Knockdown“-System in P. anserina etabliert, was die detaillierte Untersuchung eines essentiellen Gens in diesem Organismus ermöglichte. Durch dessen Einsatz konnte eine reduzierte Fertilität, eine verkürzte Lebensspanne sowie Veränderungen der mitochondrialen Morphologie und Funktion als direkte Folge einer PaMus10-Herabregulation nachgewiesen werden.
6. PaMUS10 ist vorwiegend cytosolisch lokalisiert wird aber unter oxidativem Stress oder in gealterten Kulturen an die Mitochondrien rekrutiert, was einen vergleichbaren Mechanismus zur menschlichen E3-Ligase PARKIN darstellt.
7. Der Verlust von PaMUS10 verursacht ein Präseneszenzsyndrom und führt zum vorzeitigen Absterben des Organismus, wohingegen die zusätzliche Expression von PaMus10::Gfp offenbar positive Effekte nach sich zieht, da hier eine deutliche Verlängerung der Lebensspanne beobachtet wurde.
8. Der Vergleich der beiden Ubiquitinome von ∆PaMus10/PaMus10 und Wthph1/2 zeigt eine massive Reduzierung der globalen Ubiquitinierung, welche offenbar durch das Fehlen von PaMUS10 ausgelöst wird und damit dessen Funktion als E3-Ligase untermauert.
9. Im Rahmen der hier durchgeführten Substratanalyse wurden insgesamt 131 Proteine identifiziert, von denen ca. 20 % dem Mitochondrium zugeordnet werden können. Aufgrund der diversen biologischen Prozesse und Funktionen dieser Substrate ist PaMUS10 sowohl in die Ubiquitinierung cytosolischer als auch mitochondrialer Proteine involviert und greift womöglich sogar als zentraler Schalter in die gesamte zelluläre Homöostase ein.
Aufgrund der nicht unerheblichen Zahl der identifizierten ubiquitinierten Proteine (Ubiquitinom) und den fatalen Auswirkungen, die der Verlust einer E3-Ligase in diesem Organismus nach sich zieht, lässt sich folgende grundlegende Erkenntnis formulieren:
Die Ubiquitinierung spielt in P. anserina eine bedeutende Rolle zur Aufrechterhaltung zellulärer Prozesse insbesondere der mitochondrialen Homöostase und beeinflusst dadurch positiv die Entwicklung und Alterung in diesem Organismus.
Glioblastoma is the most common and most aggressive type of brain tumor in adults. In contrast to epithelial cancers, glioblastomas do not metastasize. While the major treatment challenge in epithelial cancers is not the primary tumor but metastasis, glioblastoma patients die of the primary tumor.
However, there is a common theme which underlies the malignant properties of progressed epithelial cancers and glioblastoma: invasion from the primary tumor into the surrounding tissue. In the case of epithelial cancers this is the first and necessary step to metastasis, whereas invasion leads inevitably to tumor recurrence after resection in the case of glioblastoma, causing it to be incurable.
A cellular program which has been described in detail to promote the invasive phenotype in epithelial tumors, is the epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT). Differentiated neural cells are not epithelial, thus, strictly speaking, EMT does not occur in glioblastoma. However, the traits acquired in the process of EMT, especially invasiveness and stemness, are highly relevant to glioblastoma. One of the key transcription factors known to induce EMT in epithelial cancers is ZEB1, which has been described only marginally in the central nervous system so far. Here, I investigate the expression and function of ZEB1 in glioblastoma and during human fetal neural development.
ZEB1 mRNA was significantly upregulated in all histological types of glioma, including glioblastoma, when compared to normal brain. There was no correlation between ZEB1 mRNA levels and tumor grade. Immunohistochemical staining of glioma samples demonstrated that ZEB1 was highly expressed in the great majority of tumor cells. In the developing human brain, intense staining for ZEB1 could be observed in the ventricular and subventricular zone, where stem- and progenitor cells reside. ZEB1 positive cells included cells stained with stem- and progenitor markers like PAX6, GFAP and Nestin. In contrast, ZEB1 was never found in early neuronal cells as identified by TUBB3 staining.
To gain insight into ZEB1 function I generated a human fetal neural stem cell line and a glioblastoma cell line with ZEB1 knockdown, which were compared with their respective control cell lines. First, I found that ZEB1 does not regulate the micro RNA 200 family in either cell line, which has been described as an essential ZEB1 target in epithelial cancers. Second, regulated target genes were identified with a genome wide microarray. The third approach was to directly identify genomic binding sites of ZEB1 by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq). All three approaches showed that the ZEB1 transcriptional program is surprisingly similar in the neural stem cell line and the glioblastoma cell line. In contrast, it bears only little resemblance to the program described in epithelial cancers.
The most interesting, previously unrecognized ZEB1 target gene identified in this study is integrin b1. It was regulated after ZEB1 knockdown detected by microarray analysis, and has a ZEB1 binding site in its promoter region detected by ChIP-seq. Finally, I addressed the question whether ZEB1 influences tumor growth and invasiveness in a glioblastoma model. After intracranial xenotransplantation in mice, ZEB1 knockdown glioblastoma cells formed significantly smaller and less invasive tumors than control glioblastoma cells.
This study demonstrates that ZEB1 is widely expressed in glioma and relevant for glioblastoma growth and invasion. In contrast to what is known about ZEB1 function in epithelial cancers, ZEB1 is not associated with glioma progression, but instead seems to be an early and necessary event in tumorigenesis. Also with regard to ZEB1 target genes, ZEB1 functions differently in glioblastoma than in epithelial cancers. The two most important ZEB1 targets in epithelial cancers are E-cadherin and the miR-200 family members. Both are not relevant to ZEB1 function in glioblastoma. Interestingly, while the ZEB1 transcriptional program is different from the one described in epithelial cancers, it is highly similar in glioblastoma cells and fetal neural stem cells. This suggests that an embryonic pathway restricted to stem- and progenitor cells during development is reactivated in glioblastoma.
Previously known ZEB1 target genes were tissue specific and therefore seemed unlikely to mediate ZEB1 function in the central nervous system. However, the newly identified ZEB1 target gene integrin b1 is well known to play pivotal roles in both glioblastoma tumorigenesis and invasion as well as in neural stem cells. Additionally, integrin b1 is widely expressed and seems a likely ZEB1 target in other organs than the brain.
Taken together, I demonstrate that ZEB1 is a new regulator of glioblastoma growth and invasion. The transcriptional program of ZEB1 differs from the one in epithelial cancers but is strikingly similar to the one in neural stem cells. The newly identified ZEB1 target gene integrin b1 is likely to mediate crucial ZEB1 functios. Thus, this study identifies ZEB1 as a yet unrecognized player in glioblastoma and neural development. Furthermore, it sets the stage for more research which will help to deepen our understanding of ZEB1 function in the central nervous system and beyond.
A promising strategy to reduce the dependency from fossil fuels is to use the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to bioconvert renewable non-food feedstocks or waste streams, like lignocellulosic biomass, into bioethanol and other valuable molecule blocks. Lignocellulosic feedstocks contain glucose and significant fractions of the pentoses xylose and arabinose in varying proportions depending on the biomass type. S. cerevisiae is an efficient glucose consumer, but it cannot metabolize xylose and arabinose naturally. Therefore, extensive research using recombinant DNA techniques has been conducted to introduce and improve the biochemical pathways necessary to utilize these non-physiological substrates. However, any functional pathway capable of metabolizing D xylose and L arabinose in S. cerevisiae requires the transport of these sugars across the plasma membrane. The endogenous sugar transport system of S. cerevisiae can conduct a limited uptake of D-xylose and L-arabinose; this uptake enables only basal growth when the enzymatic pathways are provided. For this reason, the uptake of D xylose and L-arabinose has been recognized as a limiting step for the efficient utilization of these non-physiological substrates.
Gal2, a member of the major facilitator superfamily, is one of the most studied hexose transporters in S. cerevisiae. Although its expression is repressed in the presence of glucose, it also transports this sugar with high affinity when constitutively expressed. Recent efforts to engineer yeast strains for the utilization of plant biomass have unraveled the ability of Gal2 to transport non-physiological substrates like xylose and arabinose, among others. Improving Gal2 kinetic and substrate specificity, particularly for pentoses, has become a crucial target in strain engineering. The main goal of this study is to improve the utilization of xylose and arabinose by increasing the cell permeability of these non physiological substrates through the engineering of the galactose permease Gal2.
GAL2 gene expression depends on galactose, which acts as an inducer; nevertheless, even in the presence of galactose, glucose act as a strict repressor; consequently, GAL2 gene is usually placed under the control of a constitutive promoter. However, the presence of glucose additionally triggers the Gal2 degradation, which is mediated by the covalent attachment of the small 76 amino acid protein ubiquitin (Ub) to the targeted transporter; in a multi-step process called ubiquitination.
Ubiquitination of hexose permeases involves the activation of the Ub molecule by the E1 Ub-activating enzyme using ATP; then, the activated Ub is transferred to a specific Ub-conjugating enzyme E2, which donates the Ub indirectly through a specific HECT E3 enzyme (Rsp5) to a lysine residue of the substrate, with the aid of an adaptor protein which recognizes the target (Rsp5-adaptor). Ubiquitinated permeases are sent by membrane invagination to early endosomes, where they encounter ESCRTs (endosomal sorting complex required for transport). The targeted permeases are sorted in intralumenal vesicles (ILV) inside of the endosome, which after several cycles, turns into a multivesicular body (MVB) that subsequently fuses with the vacuole to expose the protein content of the ILVs to lumenal hydrolases for degradation.
Gal2 contains 30 lysine residues that may accept the ubiquitin molecule, which targets its degradation. It is known that mono-ubiquitination by Rsp5 on multiple lysine residues is necessary to internalize Gal2 (Horak & Wolf, 2001). However, the authors did not identify the specific lysine residues involved in the ubiquitination processes. This study screened several Gal2 variants where lysine residues were mutated or removed from the protein sequence to discover which lysine residues are likely involved in ubiquitination and consequent turnover of the transporter. The results of the screening showed that mutation of the N terminal lysine residues 27, 37, and 44 to arginine (Gal23KR) produced a functional transporter that, when fused with GFP (Gal23KR_GFP), showed an exclusive localization at the plasma membrane in cells growing in galactose or glucose as a sole carbon source (Tamayo Rojas et al., 2021b).
This study furthermore evaluated upstream signals caused by phosphorylation which triggers ubiquitination and consequent turnover of the targeted protein; using similar screening approaches to assess the stabilization of Gal2 by lysine residue modifications, it was possible to identify that N terminal serine residues 32, 35, 39, 48, 53, and 55 are likely involved in the internalization of Gal2, since a Gal2 construct where all these serines were mutated to alanine residues and tagged with GFP (Gal26SA_GFP) exhibited practically complete localization at the plasma membrane in cells growing in galactose or glucose as a sole carbon source (Tamayo Rojas et al., 2021b)...
The increasing demand of the high value ω-3 fatty acids due to its beneficial role for human health, explains the huge need for alternative production ways of ω-3 fatty acids. The oleaginous alga Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a prominent candidate and has been investigated as biofactory for ω-3 fatty acids, e.g. the synthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). In general, the growth and the lipid content of diatoms can be enhanced by genetic engineering or are influenced by environmental factors, e.g. nutrients, light or temperature.
In this study, the potential of P. tricornutum as biofactory was improved by heterologously expressing the hexose uptake protein 1 (HUP1) from the Chlorophyte Chlorella kessleri.
An in situ localization study revealed that only the full length HUP1 protein fused to eGFP was correctly targeted to the plasma membrane, whereas the N-terminal sequence of the protein is only sufficient to enter the ER. Protein and gene expression data displayed that the gene-promoter combination was relevant for the expression level of HUP1, while only cells expressing the protein under the light-inducible fcpA promoter showed a significant expression. In these mutants an efficient glucose uptake was detectable under mixotrophic growth condition, low light intensities and low glucose concentrations leading to an increased cell dry weight.
In a second approach, the growth and lipid content of wildtype cells were analyzed in a small 1l photobioreactor. Here, a commercial F/2 medium and a common culture medium, ASP and modified versions were compared. There was neither a significant impact on the growth and lipid content in P. tricornutum cells due to the supplemention of trace elements nor due to elevated salt concentrations in the media. In a modified version of ASP medium, with adapted nitrate and phosphate concentration a constantly high biomass productivity was achieved, yielding the highest value of 82 mg l-1 d-1 during the first three days. This was achieved even though light intensity was reduced by 40%. The differences in biomass productivity as well as the lipid content and the lipid composition underlined the importance of the choice of culture medium and the harvest time for enhanced growth and EPA yields in P. tricornutum.
In allen drei Domänen des Lebens ist in der Translation die Initiation der geschwindigkeits-bestimmende Schritt. Die Effizienz der Translationsinitiation und ihre unterschiedliche Regula-tion ist von Translationsinitiationsfaktoren (IFs) abhängig. Bakterien enthalten nur drei IFs, während die Anzahl bei Archaeen (aIFs) und Eukaryoten (eIFs) deutlich höher ist.
Das Archaeon Haloferax volcanii beispielsweise besitzt 14 Gene, die für aIFs bzw. deren Untereinheiten kodieren. Eine Deletionsanalyse ergab, dass fünf aIFs essenziell und neun aIFs nicht essenziell sind. Um einen Einblick in die Funktions- und Interaktionsbereiche der aIFs in H. volcanii zu erhalten, wurden die aIFs mit einem His-Tag versehen und überexpri-miert. Die Überexpression erfolgte in der jeweiligen Deletionsmutante. Für essenzielle aIFs fand sie im Wildtyp statt. Durch Affinitätsaufreinigungen wurden die aIFs und ihre Bindungs-partner isoliert und mittels Massenspektrometrie (MS) identifiziert. Für den Ausschluss unspe-zifischer Proteine dienten zwei stringente Kontrollen als Referenz, das Reportergen Dihydro-folatreduktase (HVO_1279) mit His-Tag und das Expressionsplasmid ohne Gen.
Die ersten Arbeiten konzentrierten sich auf den heterotrimeren Faktor aIF2. Er bindet die Ini-tiator-tRNA und ist damit für die Bildung des Präinitiationskomplexes von zentraler Bedeu-tung. Der Faktor aIF2 besteht aus jeweils einer α-, β- und γ-Untereinheit. In H. volcanii existie-ren zwei Orthologe für aIF2β. Die Überexpressionen der α-, β1-, β2- und γ-Untereinheiten führten zur Co-Isolation der jeweils anderen Untereinheiten des aIF2 (α, β1/ β2, γ).
Die Strategie der Co-Affinitätsaufreinigung und MS wurde auf alle weiteren annotierten aIFs ausgedehnt, um mögliche Funktionen zu identifizieren und ein potenzielles Interaktionsnetz-werk der aIFs zu erstellen. Für alle aIFs konnte ein unterschiedliches Muster an co-gereinigten Proteinen festgestellt werden. Mitgereinigte Proteine waren aIFs, Proteine der Translation, Transkription, Replikation und ribosomale Proteine. Auch RNA-Polymerase-Untereinheiten (RNAPUs) konnten co-isoliert werden. Mit 13 der 14 aIFs konnten andere Ini-tiationsfaktoren co-gereinigt werden. Sechs aIFs konnten zu Beginn bei keinem weiteren Initi-ationsfaktor mitgereinigt werden. Einer dieser Faktoren war aIF2β-1, der jedoch in den Affini-tätsaufreinigungen mit nachfolgender FPLC von aIF2β-2 identifiziert werden konnte. Der Fak-tor aIF1 konnte nur in der stationären Phase von aIF2α mitgereinigt werden.
Die am häufigsten co-gereinigten Proteine waren aIF2Bδ-1 und aIF5B. Für aIF2Bδ-1 kam dies überraschend, da er bereits als Translationsinitiationsfaktor ausgeschlossen wurde. Mit dem Faktor aIF2Bδ-1 selbst konnten fünf aIFs co-gereinigt werden.
Da mit den aIFs auch RNAPUs co-gereinigt werden konnten, wurden sieben RNAPUs ebenfalls mit einem His-Tag versehen und überexprimiert. Auch mit den RNAPUs konnten aIFs, sowie weitere Proteine der Translation mitgereinigt werden.
Diese Umstände legen nahe, dass es möglicherweise eine engere Verbindung der Tran-skription und Translation in H. volcanii geben könnte, als bisher angenommen.
Xylose, an abundant sugar fraction of lignocellulosic biomass, is a five-carbon skeleton molecule. Since decades, utilization of this sugar has gained much attention and has been in particular focus as a substrate for production of biofuels like ethanol by microbial hosts, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this yeast, xylose is naturally not used as a carbon source, but its utilization could be achieved by metabolic engineering either via the oxidoreductive route or through the isomerase pathway. Both pathways share xylulose as a common intermediate that must be phosphorylated before entering the endogenous metabolism via the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (noxPPP). Besides this, in some bacteria a non-phosphorylating oxidative pathway for xylose degradation exists, known as Weimberg pathway, where a molecule of xylose is converted by a series of enzymes - xylose dehydrogenase (XylB), xylonate dehydratase (XylD), 3-keto-2-deoxy-xylonate dehydratase (XylX) and α-ketoglutarate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (KsaD) - to form α-ketoglutarate (AKG). Besides having several useful properties as a product, AKG could also be used for cell growth as an intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. One target of the present study is to establish a functional Weimberg pathway in S. cerevisiae. Previous studies have shown that this task is not trivial, for instance due to the toxicity of xylonate (the first metabolite of the pathway) and the involvement of an iron-sulfur cluster dependent enzyme, the D-xylonate dehydratase. The assembly of iron-sulfur clusters on a heterologous protein in yeast is known to be challenging.
To establish the Weimberg pathway in yeast, the genes xylB, xylD, and xylX were obtained from Caulobacter cresentus and ksaD was from Corynebacterium glutamicum. In a variant, the dehydratase xylD was replaced with orf41 from Arthrobacter nicotinovorans, which is believed to be independent of iron-sulfur clusters. Growth of yeast cells on xylose as a sole carbon source was expected as an indicator of a functional Weimberg pathway. However, the heterologous expression of the codon optimized genes was not sufficient to reach this goal. Due to the complexity of the interactions of the heterologous pathway with the endogenous cellular processes, it was assumed that potential limitations could be overcome by adaptive laboratory evolution, using xylose as a sole source of carbon. Increasing selection pressure was applied on a strain with Weimberg pathway genes integrated into the genome over several generations. As a variant of the evolutionary engineering approach, mutator strains were generated. For this, RAD27 and MSH2 genes were deleted, which are involved in nucleotide excision and mismatch repair mechanisms, respectively. Some of the resulting strains PRY24, PRY25, PRY27 and PRY28 were able grow in xylose as a sole carbon source after evolutionary engineering. As a control, a non-mutator strain PRY19 was also included. Strikingly, only the mutator strains were able to consume xylose as a sole carbon source, which shows the feasibility of the approach.
In addition to the mutator strain strategy, a further approach employed in the present study was the simultaneous expression of the Weimberg pathway in the cytosol and mitochondria. This was based on the reasoning that the iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis on XylD may be improved in the organelle and that the AKG is an intermediate of the TCA cycle. In the strain AHY02, all enzymes of the pathway were tagged with mitochondrial targeting signals in addition to a full cytosolically localized pathway. The localization of the mitochondrial variants was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Together with AHY02, CEN.PK2-1C wild type strain was also included as a control for evolution. When a selection pressure on xylose was applied, both strains - AHY02 and CEN.PK2-1C - were able to grow in the course of evolution. Deletion of the xylulokinase (XKS1) gene was found to be detrimental for both evolved strains in xylose-containing media. This suggests that the evolution of the endogenous oxidoreductive and noxPPP genes is responsible for growth of the evolved cells. For the evolved strain AHY02, it could also be possible that the Weimberg pathway genes supported to growth in addition to the oxidoreductive route. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms, genome sequencing and reverse engineering approaches would be necessary in future.
In addition to screening for growth on xylose as a sole carbon source, a less stringent screening system was created to examine even a minor flux of xylose towards AKG. For this, all genes necessary for conversion of isocitrate to AKG where deleted, yielding a glutamate auxotrophic strain. In this system, the cells can grow on other carbon sources, whereas xylose is only provided as a source of AKG for the synthesis of glutamate...
Biotechnological processes offer better production conditions for a wide variety of goods of industrial interest. The production of aromatic compounds, for example, involves molecules of great value for cosmetic, plastic, agrochemical and pharmaceutic industries. However, the yield of such processes frequently prevents a proper implementtation that would allow the replacement of traditional production processes.
Numerous rational engineering approaches have been attempted to enhance metabolic pathways associated with desired products. Unfortunately, genetic modifications and heterologous pathway expression often lead to a higher metabolic burden on the producing organisms, ultimately leading to reduced production levels and fitness.
This project utilised adaptive laboratory evolution to better understand the development of synthetic cooperative consortia, using S. cerevisiae as a model organism. Specifically, a synthetic cooperative consortium was developed around the exchange of lysine and tyrosine, which was subjected to adaptive laboratory evolution aiming to induce mutations that would improve the system’s fitness either by enhanced production or upgraded stress resistance. Consequently, the mutant strains isolated after the evolution rounds were sequenced to identify relevant variations that could be related to the growth and production phenotypes observed.
The insights derived from this project are expected to contribute to further developing synthetic cooperative consortia with utilitarian purposes.
Organismen besitzen die Fähigkeit sich Temperaturerniedrigungen anzupassen, wobei über die molekularen Mechanismen der Kälteadaptation wenig bekannt ist. Für die Untersuchung dieser Mechanismen stellt die Bäckerhefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae ein ausgezeichnetes Modellsystem aufgrund der einfachen Struktur und der Möglichkeit zur genetischen Manipulation dar. In dieser Arbeit wurde die transkriptionelle Antwort von S. cerevisiae auf Kälte mit Hilfe von DNA Chips (6330 ORFs) charakterisiert, wobei Proben von Hefekulturen mit einer Inkubationsdauer von 10 und 30 min, 2, 12 und 60 h bei 10°C verwendet wurden. 634 Gene reagierten mit einer signifikanten Expressionsänderungen auf den Kälteeinfluss, wobei zwei distinkte Phasen, definiert als frühe und späte Kälteantwort, identifiziert wurden. Vergleiche der Kälteantwort mit Expressionsdaten verschiedener Umweltstressbedingungen ergaben differentielle Expressionsmuster. Im Vergleich zu anderen Stressreaktionen zeigten Gene der frühen Kälteantwort entweder ein entgegengesetztes Expressionsmuster (“inverser Hitzeschockeffekt”) oder keine transkriptionelle Reaktion. Dieser Effekt kehrte sich während der späten Kälteantwort in eine allgemeine Stressantwort um. Messungen des Trehalose- und Glykogengehalts sowie Studien mit einer in der Stressinduktion beeinträchtigten Doppelmutante Δmsn2/Δmsn4 bei 10°C zeigten, dass die allgemeine Stressantwort ein Teil der späten Kälteantwort ist. Dagegen deuten die Daten der frühen Kälteantwort auf eine Kälte-spezifische Reaktion hin, wobei Anpassung der Membranfluidität sowie RNA-Modifikation eine essentielle Rolle spielen. Im Zusammenhang mit der Untersuchung der Kälteanpassung in S. cerevisiae wurde der ORF YBR255W mit unbekannter Funktion, dessen Deletion einen Kälte-sensitiven Wachstumsdefekt besitzt, auf molekular-biologischer und biochemischer Ebene charakterisiert. Die transkriptionelle Reaktion einer Δybr255w-Mutante bei Kälte (10ºC) wurde mit den Expressionsdaten des Wildtyps verglichen und zeigte starke Veränderungen während der frühen Kälteantwort, wobei nach 2 Stunden der größte Expressionsunterschied zum Wildtyp beobachtet wurde. 65% der Gene der frühen Kälteantwort zeigten YBR255Wabhängige Veränderungen, darunter Gene des Zellzyklus, des Zellwachstums und der Zelldifferenzierung. Interaktionsstudien auf genetischer und Proteinebene ergaben, dass Ybr255p mit einer Komponente des „Mitotic Exit Network“ und Komponenten des PKC1-Wegs interagiert. Die Überexpression von Ybr225p zeigte drastische Veränderungen der Zellmorphologie, wie sie ebenfalls für Mutanten des „Mitotic Exit Network“ beschrieben sind. Zusammengenommen mit der transkriptionellen Reaktion der Δybr255w-Mutante auf Kälte deuten diese Ergebnisse auf eine essentielle Rolle von Ybr255p im Zellzyklus bei Kälte hin.