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Tulasnella species (Tulasnellaceae, Cantharellales, Basidiomycota) form inconspicuous basidiomata on rotten branches or trunks of trees, difficult to find and recognize in nature. However, according to ultrastrucural and molecular data, species of Tulasnellaceae are the most frequent mycorrhriza forming fungi (mycobionts) of green, photosynthetic orchids worldwide. Species of Tulasnellaceae were also found as prominent mycobionts of the extraordinary diverse orchids in tropical montane rainforest of Southern Ecuador. Orchids obligately depend on mycobionts during the juvenile stage when the fungi have to deliver carbon to the non-photosynthetic protocorm and thus the fungi substantially influence the establishment of orchids in the wild. Species of Tulasnellaceae can acquire carbon from decaying bark or wood by specific saprotrophic capabilities as was recently proven through comparative genomics that included data on decay enzymes from Tulasnella cf. calospora isolated from orchid mycorrhizae (Anacamptis laxiflora, Italy). Thus, species of Tulasnellaceae can be saprotrophs and symbionts simultaneously.
It is currently under discussion, whether specific species of Tulasnella are required for seed germination and establishment of distinct terrestrial and epiphytic orchids in nature or if species of Tulasnella are generalists concerning their association with orchids. The inconsistences in species concepts and taxonomy of Tulasnella spp., however, strongly impede progress in this field of research. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to revise the species concepts by combining, for the first time, morphological and molecular data from basidiomata.
Specimens were collected in tropical Andean forest in Southern Ecuador and in temperate forests in Germany. Additional specimens were loaned from fungaria. In total, 205 specimens, corresponding to 16 own samples and 189 specimens from fungaria were analyzed. The mycobiont relationships of Tulasnella spp. with orchids from the sampling area in Ecuador were studied in populations of Epidendrum rhopalostele. The basis for molecular-phylogenetic analysis was completed by data obtained from own previous investigations on mycobionts from the investigation area and Tulasnella isolates from Australia.
30 morphospecies are illustrated and delimited by a morphological key based on traditional species concepts. Tulasnella andina from Ecuador and Tulasnella kirschneri from China are presented as species new to science. Tulasnella cruciata is described from herbarium material for the first time. Tulasnella aff. eichleriana and T. violea are reported for the first time from Ecuador. Molecular sequences of two Tulasnella spp. isolated from mycobionts of Epidendrum rhopalostele cannot be related to any morphological species concept. Statistical analyses suggest that conventional diagnostic using morphological characteristics is ambiguous for delimiting morphologically similar species.
For the first time sequences of the ITS-5.8S rDNA region were obtained after cloning from fresh basidiomata. Extraction of DNA from herbarium specimens was, however, unsuccessful. Sequences from 16 fresh basidiomata, six pure cultures, and sequences of orchids mycorrhizae (e.g. from Epidendrum rhopalostele) available in the database GenBank were analyzed. Proportional
variability of ITS-5.8S rDNA sequences within and among cultures and within and among specimens were used to designate morphospecies. Results suggest an intragenomic variation of less than 2 %, an intraspecific variation of up to 4 % and an interspecific divergence of more than 9 % for Tulasnella spp.
Four percent of intraspecific divergence was defined as a minimum threshold for delimiting phylogenetic species. This threshold corroborates the so far used 3 % to 5 % divergence in delimitation of operational taxonomic units of Tulasnella mycobionts.
Quite a number of sequences of Tulasnella are available in GenBank, mostly obtained from direct PCR amplification from orchid mycorrhizae. By including closely related sequences in the phylogenetic analysis, several morphological cryptic species of Tulasnella, mostly from Ecuador, were found. Arguments are given for molecular support of the new species Tulasnella andina and the established species Tulasnella albida, T. asymmetrica, T. eichleriana, T. tomaculum, and T. violea. Thus, by combining molecular and morphological data species concepts in Tulasnella are improved. The definitions of Tulasnella calospora and T. deliquescens, however, remain phylogenetically inconsistent.
The present investigation is a first step to expand our knowledge on the intraand interspecific morphological and molecular variability of Tulasnella spp. and to delimit species relevant for studies on ecology and communities of orchids and Tulasnellaceae.
Hyperparasitic fungi on black mildews (Meliolales, Ascomycota) : hidden diversity in the tropics
(2023)
Meliolales (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) is a group of obligate plant parasitic microfungi mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics. Meliolalean fungi are commonly known as “black mildews”, as they form black, superficial hyphae on the surface of vegetative and reproductive organs of vascular plants. They are considered biotrophic parasites, and the infections caused by black mildews can lead to a decrease in the photosynthetic activity of plants, as well as to an increase in the temperature and respiration rate of their leaves.
Meliolales are frequently parasitized by hyperparasitic fungi, i.e., parasitic fungi that have parasitic hosts. These hyperparasites are all Ascomycota and belong mainly to the Dothideomycetes and Sordariomycetes. Although hyperparasites represent a megadiverse group, species were only described by morphology until 1980, and the systematic position of more than 60 % of known species is still unclear. In addition, there are no DNA reference sequences available in public databases for any of the species of hyperparasites of Meliolales, and no ecological studies have been done up to now.
Before this study, no exact number of hyperparasitic fungi growing on colonies of black mildews existed. Here, we present a checklist including 189 species of fungi known to be hyperparasitic on Meliolales, but the number of existing species is likely to be even higher. The elaboration of this species checklist laid the foundations for this investigation, as it helped to understand the present state of knowledge of hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales worldwide.
For the present study, fresh specimens of leaves infected with colonies of Meliolales and hyperparasites were opportunistically collected at 32 collection sites in Western Panama and Benin, West Africa, in 2020 and 2022, respectively. In total, 100 samples of plant specimens infected with black mildews were collected, of which 58 samples were parasitized by hyperparasitic fungi. 31 species and morphospecies of hyperparasitic fungi were identified. In addition, 35 historical specimens, including 12 type specimens, were examined for the present work.
DNA of hyperparasitic fungi was isolated directly from conidia, synnemata, apothecia, perithecia or pseudothecia of fresh and dried specimens. The main challenges faced by scientists in doing molecular studies of hyperparasitic fungi are related to the fact that the hyperparasitic fungi are intermingled with tissues of the meliolalean hosts and other organisms present in a given sample. This makes the isolation of DNA exclusively from the hyperparasite difficult. Moreover, hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales are biotrophs and cannot be grown axenically. The hosts themselves are also biotrophic, further complicating DNA isolation from either partner. These factors have contributed to a lack of reference sequences in public databases. After more than 100 attempts, DNA of 20 specimens of hyperparasitic fungi, representing seven species, has been isolated in the context of the present investigation. Three partial nuclear gene regions were amplified and sequenced: nrLSU, nrSSU and nrITS. The datasets were assembled for phylogenetic analyses applying Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods. DNA sequences of hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales were generated for the first time in the context of the present investigation.
Hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales do not represent a single systematic group, but a polyphyletic ecological guild of fungi. Because of this huge diversity, only the systematics of species of perithecioid hyperparasites, as well as of the species of the genera Atractilina and Spiropes known to be hyperparasitic on black mildews was discussed in this thesis, as they represented the most common groups of fungi found in Benin and Panama. The results indicated, for example, the systematic position of Dimerosporiella cephalosporii and Paranectriella minuta in the Sordariomycetes and Dothideomycetes, respectively. In addition, the first record of a hyperparasitic fungus of black mildews in the Lecanoromycetes, namely Calloriopsis herpotricha, is reported here. The systematics of Atractilina parasitica and of some species of Spiropes is also discussed here.
In the context of the present investigation, four species new to science were described. They are presented with detailed descriptions, photos and scientific illustrations. Taxonomic studies of this thesis also generated seven new synonyms, nine new records for Benin, seven for Panama, one for Africa and two for mainland America, as well as the confirmation of one anamorph-teleomorph connection by molecular sequence data.
The ecology of hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales is complex and far from being completely understood. The hypothesis of host specificity between hyperparasitic fungi, their meliolalean hosts and their plant hosts was tested for the first time, through a tritrophic network analysis. Results indicate that hyperparasites of Meliolales are generalists concerning genera of Meliolales, but apparently specialists at the level of order. In addition, hyperparasitic fungi tend to be found alongside their meliolalean hosts, suggesting a pantropical distribution.
In dieser Arbeit, deren Hauptanliegen die Erstellung eines pflanzensoziologischen Systems war, wurde die Segetalvegetation der Sudanzone Westafrikas durch vegetationskundliche Aufnahmen erfasst. Zu den Aufnahmen wurden Bodenproben entnommen und Befragungen über die Anbaumethoden sowie Nutzung der Segetalarten durchgeführt. Um ein repräsentatives Bild der Segetalvegetation zu erreichen, wurden Regionen in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Benin, Senegal und Mali zur Analyse ausgewählt, die in der Süd-, Nordsudanzone sowie in angrenzenden Gebieten der Sahelzone lagen. 601 Arten aus 70 Familien wurden identifiziert. Vier Familien, nämlich Poaceae, Leguminosae- Papilionaceae, Cyperaceae und Asteraceae dominieren in der Segetalflora und stellen die Hälfte der Arten, während die übrigen Familien, mit oft nur einem Vertreter, weniger repräsentiert sind. Corchorus tridens, Mitracarpus scaber und Leucas martinicensis, die drei häufigsten Segetalarten in der Sudanzone stammen jedoch nicht aus den vier oben genannten Familien. Die meisten Arten sind Therophyten und haben eine in den Tropen eingeschränkte Verbreitung. Es sind entweder pantropische (42 %), afrikanische Arten (32) oder paläeotropische Arten (20 %). Aus den 1120 Aufnahmen wurden 65 Gesellschaften beschrieben. Ein Vergleich dieser Gesellschaften führte zur Erarbeitung einer synoptischen Tabelle, deren Einheiten zur Herausarbeitung von pflanzensoziologischen Syntaxa dienten. Dabei wurden die bis dato beschriebenen Einheiten der Segetal- sowie Ruderalvegetation in den Tropen zum Vergleich einbezogen. Ein pflanzensoziologisches System der Segetalvegetation in der Sudanzone wurde erstellt. Zwei neue Klassen wurden definiert: die Leucetea martinicensis und die Caperonietea palustris. Die Leucetea martinicensis kommen auf den trockenen Böden vor und enthalten zwei Ordnungen: die Commelinietalia benghalensis auf gedüngten und die Polycarpeaetalia corymbosae auf ungedüngten Feldern. Die Commelinietalia benghalensis bestehen aus zwei Verbänden, dem Celosion trigynae und dem Tridaxion procumbentis. Der erste Verband ist sowohl in der Nord- als in der Südsudanzone anzutreffen, während der zweite nur in der Südsudanzone zu beobachten ist. Die Polycarpeaetalia corymbosae beinhalten drei Verbände: das Brachiarion distichophyllae, das Merremion tridentatae und das Jacquemontion tamnifoliae. Das Brachiarion distichophyllae kommt überall in der Sudanzone vor und bevorzugt die häufigen pisolithenreichen Böden. Das Merremion tridentatae ist auch in der gesamten Sudanzone verbreitet. Es ist überwiegend auf ausgesprochen sandigen Böden zu finden. Das Jacquemontion tamnifoliae hat einen eindeutigen Schwerpunkt in der Sahelzone und den Übergangsgebieten zur Sudanzone. Das ist der Verband, der auf den Hirsefeldern der Dünen in der Sahelzone wächst. Die Caperonietea palustris sind eine edaphisch stark geprägte Klasse. Sie wachsen auf den extrem tonreichen Vertisolen. Da diese eine Seltenheit in der Sudanzone sind, stellen die Caperonietea palustris eine ganz besondere Vegetation in der Sudanzone dar. Darin wurden zwei Assoziationen beschrieben: das Sorghetum arundinaceum und das Hygrophiletum auriculatae. Die Segetalvegetation auf den Reisfeldern in den Senken gehört zur neuen Ordnung Melochietalia corchorifoliae, die den Phragmitetea TÜXEN