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Die zellfreie Proteinsynthese hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem potenten Werkzeug – auch in der Produktion von Membranproteinen – entwickelt. Da keine lebenden Zellen genutzt werden, kann der Prozess der präparativen Membranproteinproduktion vereinfacht und individuell optimiert werden. Im Gegensatz zu konventionellen zellbasierten Expressionssystemen gewährleistet die zellfreie Proteinsynthese die direkte Zugänglichkeit zum Reaktionsort und damit die Möglichkeit der unmittelbaren Kontrolle. Dies ermöglicht eine genaue Anpassung der Reaktionsbedingungen auf das Zielprotein. Die Verbesserung und Entwicklung neuer Modi der zellfreien Membranproteinsynthese war ein Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit. Setzt man dem Zellfrei-System von Außen keine hydrophobe Umgebung zu, so präzipitiert das neu-synthetisierte Membranprotein im Reaktionsmix (P-CF). Interessanter Weise unterscheiden sich diese Präzipitate von den aus der E.coli zellbasierten Proteinproduktion bekannten Einschlußkörperchen, da sie sich teilweise leicht in mildem Detergenz resolubilisieren lassen. Zudem konnte für verschiedene Transportproteine, die aus Präzpitat resolubilisiert und danach in Liposomen rekonstituiert wurden, spezifische Transportaktivität gezeigt werden (z.B. eukaryotische Ionentransporter, Multi-Drug Resistenzproteine von E.coli). Alternativ können die Membranproteine direkt, durch die Zugabe von Detergenzien in den Reaktionsmix, solubilisiert werden (D-CF). Um die einzelnen Expressionsmodi zu optimieren wurden 24 gebräuchliche Detergenzien auf ihre Eigenschaft hin gestestet, strukturell sehr unterschiedliche Membranproteine zu solubilisieren. Die Familie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether hat sich dabei als sehr geeignet erwiesen um das prokaryotische α-helikale Multi-Drug Resistenzprotein EmrE, den bakteriellen vornehmlich aus ß-sheets bestehenden Transporter Tsx und den eukaryotischen G-Protein gekoppelten Vasopressin Rezeptor V2R direkt im D-CF Modus zu solubilisieren. Zudem konnte eine Abhängigkeit der spezifischen Aktivität von Tsx vom verwendeten Expressionsmodus bzw. des verwendeten Detergenz mit Hilfe der Black Lipid Membrane´ Methode gezeigt werden. Die Expression eines repäsentativen Teils von 134 Zielproteinen des inneren Membranproteoms von E.coli wurde in drei verschiedenen Zellfrei-Expressionsmodi getestet. Ein an jedes Zielprotein des Membranroteoms C-terminal fusioniertes GFP diente der Konzentrationsbestimmung im D-CF Expressionsmodus. Die Faltung von GFP ist in Anwesenheit von Detergenz signifikant reduziert. Zunächst wurden alle Zielproteine in einem batch´ System im D-CF Modus im Mikrotiterplatten Maßstab mit Hilfe eines Roboters hergestellt. Die Etablierung einer robotergestützten Plattform, welche das Pipettieren, Inkubieren und Detektieren kombiniert, diente als Grundlage für den Herstellungsprozess des Membranroteoms von E.coli in einem Medium-Durchsatz Verfahren in batch´ Konfiguration. In dieser ersten Stufe des Screens im D-CF Modus konnten 84 Zielproteine (63%) aufgrund der detektierten GFP-Fluoreszens in Mengen von 1 bis 60μg pro mL Reaktion als erfolgreich produziert identifiziert werden. Zudem wurde das Membranproteom in dem effektiveren continous exchange (CE) Verfahren im P-CF, wie auch im D-CF Modus wiederholt exprimiert. Im Vergleich zur batch´ Konfiguration konnten im CE D-CF Modus deutlich mehr Zielproteine (75%) als positiv identifiziert werden. 16 Zielproteine wurden dabei bereits in Expressionsmengen von mehr als 100μg solubilisierte Membranproteinfusion pro mL Reaktionsmix gewonnen. 99 Zielproteine (74%) konnten als positiv identifiziert werden, nachdem die unlösliche Fraktion der CE P-CF Reaktion elektrophoretisch getrennt und angefärbt wurde. Für 66 Kandidaten (49%) stellt das produzierte Protein nach Coomassie-Färbung eine dominante Bande, und damit (semi-)präparative Proteinmengen, dar. Der Erhalt von Detergenz-solubilisierten Membranproteinproben von hoher Qualität ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Gewinnung struktureller sowie biochemischer Daten. Das E.coli α-helikale Multi- Drug Resistenz Protein SugE konnte im CE P-CF Verfahren in präparativen Mengen von mehr als 2mg Protein pro mL des Reaktionsansatzes gewonnen werden. Durchgeführte analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte, dass der Transporter unter optimierten Reaktionsbedingungen in einem homogenen, schlanken Peak eluiert. Mittels elektronenmikroskopischer Gefrierbruchanalysen konnte eine effiziente und homogene Rekonstitution von SugE in E.coli Liposomen gezeigt werden. Bindungsstudien unter der Verwendung fluoreszensbasierter Anisotropie-Messungen haben gezeigt dass Proflavin – im Gegenteil zu Ethidium – ein Substrat von SugE ist. YedZ ist ein 24kDa leucinreiches Membranprotein mit sechs putativen Transmembransegmenten und enthält zwei Kofaktoren, ein Häm b und ein Flavin-mononukleotid (FMN). Im P-CF Modus exprimiertes YedZ kann effizient in den Detergenzien LMPG, LPPG, SDS und DPC resolubilisiert werden. Analytische Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigte einen symmetrischen Elutionspeak der apo-Form. Mittels CD-Spektroskopie des gereinigten apo-YedZ in 0.02% DDM wurde ein α-helikaler Sekundärstrukturanteil von 55% ermittelt. Zur Gewinnung von holo-YedZ wurde anstatt Hämb das chemisch verwandte Hemin eingesetzt. Die aufgenommenen UV/Vis Spektren der zellfrei produzierten holo-YedZ Proteinprobe in ihrer oxydierten und reduzierten Form, zeigen zu einer in vivo exprimierten Vergleichsprobe identische Absorptionsmaxima. Für sechs G-Protein gekoppelten Rezeptoren konnte die zellfreie Expression in präparativen Mengen gezeigt werden. Das Steroid-Derivat Digitonin, sowie einzelne Mitglieder der Detergenzfamilie der langkettigen Polyoxyethylen-alkyl Ether, wurden als am geeignetsten für die lösliche Expression der GPCRs im CE D-CF Verfahren ermittelt. Löslich in Anwesenheit von Brij78 produzierter GPCR Proben, zeigten nach Negativfärbung in elektronenmikroskopischen Einzelpartikelanalysen eine homogene Probenpräparation und geben Hinweis auf eine strukturelle Dimerisierug der Rezeptoren. Detergenzsolubilisierte Rezeptoren konnten in Liposomen, basierend auf E.coli Lipid-Mischungen, rekonstituiert werden. Elektronen-mikroskopische Gefrierbruchanalysen zeigten eine homogene Rekonstitution, welche auf eine funktionelle Faltung der Rezeptoren schließen lässt.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the key players in signal perception and transduction and one of the currently most important class of drug targets. An example of high pharmacological relevance is the human endothelin (ET) system comprising two rhodopsin-like GPCRs, the endothelin A (ETA) and the endothelin B (ETB) receptor. Both receptors are major modulators in cardiovascular regulation and show striking diversities in biological responses affecting vasoconstriction and blood pressure regulation as well as many other physiological processes. Numerous disorders are associated with ET dysfunction and ET antagonism is considered an efficient treatment of diseases like heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, artherosclerosis and even cancer. This study exemplifies strategies and approaches for the preparative scale synthesis of GPCRs in individual cell-free (CF) systems based on E. coli, a newly emerging and promising technique for the production of even very difficult membrane proteins. The preparation of high quality samples in sufficient amounts is still a major bottleneck for the structural determination of the ET receptors. Heterologous overexpression has been a challenge now for decades but extensive studies with conventional cell-based systems had only limited success. A central milestone of this study was the development of efficient preparative scale expression protocols of the ETA receptor in qualities sufficient for structural analysis by using individual CF systems. Newly designed optimization strategies, the implementation of a variety of CF expression modes and the development of specific quality control assays finally resulted in the production of several milligrams of ETA receptor per one millilitre of reaction mixture. The versatility of CF expression was extensively used to modulate GPCR sample quality by modification of the solubilization environment with detergents and lipids in a variety of combinations at different stages of the production process. Downstream processing procedures of CF synthesized GPCRs were systematically optimized and sample properties were analysed with respect to homogeneity, protein stability and receptor ligand binding competence. Evaluation was accomplished by an array of complementary and specifically modified techniques. Depending on its hydrophobic environment, CF production of the ETA receptor resulted in non-aggregated, monodisperse forms with sufficient long-term stability and high degrees of secondary structure thermostability. The obtained results document the CF production of the ETA receptor in two different modes as an example of a class A GPCR in ligand-binding competent and non-aggregated form in quantities sufficient for structural approaches. The presented strategy could serve as basic guideline for the production of related receptors in similar systems.
In this thesis, the structure of the C-terminal domain of presenilin-1, the catalytic component of the y-secretase complex, is investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The ysecretase complex has a definitive role in the pathogenic development of Alzheimer's disease, in that it mediates the cleavage of aprecursor to create the amyloid ß peptide. Aggregates of amyloid ß which form amyloid plaques are the most overt clinieal feature observed in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's patient. In addition, many of the mutations found in the aggressive early onset familial Alzheimer's disease have been linked to presenilin-1, highlighting its importance in disease progression and deeming it an important target for investigation. One of the greatest challenges for the structural investigation of the y-secretase components is their low expression yields in cell-based systems. We therefore applied continuous-exchange cell-free expression to obtain sufficient amounts of protein for our structural studies. An added benefit of the cell-free expression system is the freedom to incorporate any desired combination of stable-isotope labels directly into sampies. We were therefore able to develop a labeling scheme which targets the amino acid composition of transmembrane a-helices, allowing us to simplify an assignment procedure whieh tends to be cumbersome and diffieult for most a-helical transmembrane proteins. The y-secretase complex is a member of the intramembrane cleaving proteases which, as their name implies, cleave their transmembrane substrates within the bilayer. Single particle analysis of the y-secretase (1) as weil as crystal structures of rhomboid (2) and S2P (3) have revealed the presence of hydrophilie po res within the membrane where catalysis occurs. In light of evidence that certain elements of CTF reside in close proximity or even contribute to the formation of the hydrophilic pore, we chose to study the structure of CTF in mieelles, whieh may be better suited to accommodate CTF in isolation as compared with solid membranes in the absence of the other y-secretase components. The structure of CTF was solved to 1.7 A (backbone r.m.s.d) and revealed the presence of unusual features, including a partially membrane-spanning helix which situates the catalytic asparte at its N-terminus in what would be the center of the membrane where catalysis is proposed to occur, as weil as a severely kinked helix which is partially embedded beneath the surface of the membrane (P6). Interestingly, similar features have been observed in the crystal structure of the GlpG rhomboid. In addition, a soluble helix was found in the long N-terminal loop of CTF which until now has been described as unstructured. The first part of the thesis is designed to provide an introduction to Alzheimer's disease, the role of y-secretase and its presenilin-l catalytic component in disease progression, as weil as cell-free expression and liquid-state NMR techniques involved in the structural investigation of membrane proteins. In chapter 2, the reader is familiarized with the history, the clinical manifestation, and biochemical features of Alzheimer's disease. The chapter goes further to describe the role of the y-secretase complex and its individual components in disease progression and substrate processing. Chapter 3 focuses more specifically on presenilin-l in the context of the newly emerging class of intramembrane proteases. In chapter 4, attention is shifted to the cell-free expression system with special focus on the expression of membrane proteins, and chapter 5 explores the various liquid-state NMR techniques that were required for the characterization of CTF. The second part of the thesis is cumulative and contains original research, method, and review articles that were produced during the course of study. Chapter 6 explores the various techniques and innovations used to study membrane proteins using continuous exchange cell-free expression coupled with NMR spectroscopy. In chapter 7, a new technique, transmembrane segment targeted labeling, is described as a tool that facilitates the backbone assignment of transmembrane proteins which display severe overlap in NMR spectra. Chapter 8 presents the novel NMR structure of the C-terminal fragment of presenilin-l solved in SOS micelles.
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.