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Diese Arbeit untersucht den Einfluss des Game-Design auf ausgelöste Lernprozesse und den Erfolg von Serious Games. Hierzu werden Game-Design Paradigmen entwickelt, die als Richtlinien für Konzeption und Umsetzung eines Serious Game dienen. Als Serious Games werden Videospiele bezeichnet, die zur Wissensvermittlung konzipiert worden sind. Dabei sollen die motivationalen Faktoren eines Videospiels genutzt werden, um einen intrinsisch motivierten Lernprozess auszulösen. Das Bewertungkriterium für den Erfolg einer Spielmechanik ist somit die Erfüllung der Lernziele. Damit dieses Erfolgskriterium genauer untersucht werden kann, werden die ausgelösten Lernprozesse differenziert betrachtet. In der Literatur werden folgende Lernprozesse hervorgehoben: Der Prozess des Erfahrungslernens und metakognitive Prozesse. Darüber hinaus sind Eigenschaften der Zielgruppe, wie Alter oder Geschlecht weitere wichtige Faktoren. Das dieser Arbeit zu Grunde liegende Forschungsframework setzt sich wie folgt zusammen: Lernszenario, Lernprozess und Lernerfolg. Das Lernszenario ist durch folgende Faktoren charakterisiert: Game Characteristics (Eigenschaften des Serious Game), Instructional Content (Arbeitsanweisungen und Trainingsetting) sowie Player Characteristics (Eigenschaften der Zielgruppe). Diese Parameter bedingen den Lernprozess, welcher unter dem Aspekt des Erfahrungslernens und der Metakognition analysiert wird. Eine besondere Problemstellung in den Player Characteristics ergibt sich aus dem sogenannten Net-Generation Konflikt. Mit Net-Generation wird die Generation bezeichnet, welche mit neuen Medien wie Internet und mobiler Kommunikation aufgewachsen ist. Diese besitzt im Unterschied zu älteren Generationen ein anderes Lernverhalten. Um die Aspekte des Net-Generation Konflikts und die Auswirkungen auf den Lernprozesses untersuchen zu können, wird ein Serious Game entwickelt, dessen Spielmechanik sich an folgenden Game-Design Paradigmen ausrichtet: Akzeptanz, Leichte Zugänglichkeit, Spielspaß und die Unterstützung des Lernprozesses. Dieses Serious Game FISS (Fertigungs- und Instandhaltungs-Strategie Simulation) wird bei der Daimler AG seit 2008 zur Ausbildung von Ingenieuren eingesetzt. FISS simuliert eine Fertigungslinie, die mit Hilfe geeigneter Wartungsstrategien und effizientem Personaleinsatz erfolgreich geführt werden soll. Die Spielmechanik orientiert sich an dem Genre der Rundenstrategie und wird in einem Anwesenheitstraining im Team durchgeführt. Hervorzuheben ist, dass die Zielgruppe bezüglich des Alters inhomogen ist und deshalb der Net-Generation Konflikt berücksichtigt werden muss. Im Anschluss wird FISS unter folgenden Aspekten untersucht: Der Prozess des Erfahrungslernens, metakognitive Prozesse und die Integration der Non-Net-Generation. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Eigenschaften des Game-Design einen signifikanten Einfluss auf den Prozess des Erfahrungslernens und die Lernerfolge besitzen. Spieler mit einem praktischen Zugang zu Lerninhalten (Concrete Experience) erzielten einen signifikant größeren Wissenzuwachs. Zudem profitierten alle Spieler von FISS, jedoch konnte in einer Vorstudie kein Einfluss metakognitiver Fähigkeiten auf den Wissenzuwachs nachgewiesen werden. Die weitere zentrale Studie dieser Arbeit fokussiert den Net-Generation Konflikt und evaluiert den Erfolg der eingangs aufgestellten Game-Design Paradigmen. Hierzu werden die Teilnehmer nach drei Altersgruppen getrennt betrachtet: Non-Net-Generation, Net-Generation und die dazwischen liegende Crossover-Generation. Es zeigt sich, dass der Lern- und Spielerfolg aller Generationen gleichermaßen signifikant ist und nur innerhalb des zu erwartenden Standardfehlers abweicht. FISS eignet sich folglich für alle Generationen. Diese Ergebnisse können stellvertretend für Serious Games im Genre der Rundenstrategie gesehen werden. Die in dieser Arbeit erzielten Ergebnisse ermöglichen ein besseres Verständnis der Auswirkungen des Game-Design auf den Lernerfolg. Hiermit können potentielle Schwachstellen eines Serious Game erkannt und vermieden werden. Die Erkenntnisse im Bereich des Erfahrungslernens ermöglichen zudem eine bessere Anpassungen an die Zielgruppe. Für die zukünftige Forschung wurde mit dem in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Framework eine Grundlage geschaffen.
Modern mobile devices offer a great variety of data that can be recorded. This broad range of information offers the possibility to tailor applications more to the needs of a user. Several context information can be collected, like e.g. information about position or movement. Besides integrated sensors, a broad range of additional sensors are available which can be connected to a mobile device. These additional sensors offer for example the possibility to measure physiological signals of a user.The human body offers a broad range of different signals. These signals have been used in several examples to conclude on the state of a user. The different signals allow to get a deeper insight into emotional or mental state of a user. Electrodermal activity gives feedback about the current arousal level of a user. Heart rate and heart rate variability can give an estimation about valence and mental load of a user. Several models exist to conclude from information like valence and arousal on different emotional states. Russell defined a two dimensional model, using valence and arousal to define affective states. Yerkes and Dodson developed a curve that expresses the relationship between arousal and performance of a user. Different examples exist, that use physiological signals to determine the user state for tailoring and adapting of applications. At the time of this work most of these examples did not address the usage of physiological signals for user state estimation in mobile applications and in mobile scenarios. Mobile scenarios lead to several challenges that need to be addressed. Influencing factors on physiological signals, like e.g. movement have to be controlled. Furthermore a user might be interrupted and influenced by environmental aspects. The combination of physiological data and context information might improve the interpretation of user state in mobile scenarios. In this work, we present a model that addresses the challenges of usage in mobile scenarios to offer an estimation of user state to mobile applications. To address a broad range of mobile applications, affective and cognitive state are provided as output. As input heart rate and electrodermal activity are used, as well as context information about movement and performance. Electrodermal activity is measured by a simple sensor that can be worn as a wristband. Heart rate is measured by a chest strap as used in sports. The input channels are transformed to affective and cognitive state based on a fuzzy rule based approach. With help of fuzzy logic, uncertainty can be expressed and the data continuously being processed. At the start, input channels are fuzzified by defined functions. After a that, a first fuzzy rule set transforms the input signals into values for valence, arousal and mental load. In a second step, these values and context information are transformed with another fuzzy rule set to values for affective and cognitive state. Affective state is based on the model of Russell, where valence and arousal are used to determine different emotional states. The output of the model are eight different affective states (alarmed, excited, happy, relaxed, tired, bored, sad and frustrated), which can have a high, medium, low or very low value as output. Cognitive state is determined based on mental load and context information about performance and movement. The output value can be very high, high, medium or low. The model was implemented as background service for Android devices. Different applications have been used for evaluation of the model. The model has been integrated in a multiplayer space shooter game, called ”Zone of Impulse”, which mainly benefits from the affective state. Cognitive state is more addressed in applications like a simple vocable trainer, which adapts difficulty based on user state. A study to evaluate different aspects of the model has been conducted. The study was designed to investigate the suitability of the model for mobile scenarios. The game ”zone of impulse” and the vocable trainer have been investigated in different configurations. Versions with integrated model have been compared to version of the applications without model, as well as versions of the model without context information. In total 41 participants took part in the study. A part of the participants had to do the tasks of the study in a mobile scenario, walking around several streets. The remaining participants had to do the tasks in a controlled environment in a sitting position. Different aspects were collected with ratings and questionnaires. Overall, participants rated that they did not feel impaired by the sensors they had to wear. The results showed, that the combination of physiological data and context information had an advantage against versions without context information in part of the ratings. A comparison between versions with and without model showed, that the subjective mental load ratings were significantly better for the version with model. Subjective ratings for aspects like fun, overstrain and support were mixed. When comparing the application versions in indoor and outdoor scenarios, no significant difference could be found, which leads to the assumption that there is no loss of interpretation quality in outdoor scenarios. The results also showed that the model seems to be robust enough to compensate the loss of an input channel, as there was no significant difference between application versions with full integrated model and versions with one channel lost. With the model developed in this work, context information and physiological data were combined to improve user state estimation. Furthermore pitfalls of user state estimation in mobile scenarios are overcome with this combination. However, the model has only been evaluated with a limited amount of applications and situations that mobile scenarios offer.
While high-quality climate reconstructions of some past warm periods in the Cenozoic era now exist, the geological processes responsible for driving the observed longterm changes in atmospheric CO2 are not sufficiently well understood. The long-term change in atmospheric CO2 across the Cenozoic has been proposed to be driven by processes such as terrestrial weathering, organic carbon production and burial, reverse weathering, and volcanic degassing. One way of constraining the relative importance of the various driving forces proposed so far is to better understand the degree to which ocean chemistry has changed because the chemistry of seawater responds to geologic processes that drive atmospheric CO2. In addition, knowledge of the concentration of the major elements in seawater is crucial for accurately applying proxies such as those based on the boron isotopic composition and Mg/Ca of marine carbonates (a proxy for palaeo pH/CO2 and palaeotemperature, respectively). Previously reported records of seawater composition are primarily derived from fluid inclusions in marine evaporites; however, the results are sparse due to the limited availability of such deposits. In this thesis, changes in the Eocene seawater chemistry were reconstructed using trace element (elements/Ca) and isotopic (δ26Mg) proxies in a Larger Benthic Foraminifera (LBFs), i.e., Nummulites sp., to constrain the driving processes of long-term changes in seawater chemistry.
To achieve the objective of this thesis, first, a measurement protocol was established using LA-ICPMS to measure the K/Ca ratio simultaneously with other element/calcium ratios, which is challenging due to the interference of ArH+ on K+. Utilising this newly established measurement protocol, laboratory-cultured Operculina ammonoides grown at different seawater calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]), repeated at different temperatures, as well as modern O. ammonoides collected from different regions exhibiting a range of seawater parameters, were investigated. A significant correlation was observed between K/Casw and K/CaLBF, allowing K/CaLBF to potentially be used as a proxy for seawater major ion reconstructions. In addition, modern O. ammonoides demonstrated no significant influence of most seawater parameters (temperature, salinity, pH, or [CO32-]) on K/CaLBF. Modern O.
ammonoides were also assessed for their Mg isotopic composition (δ26Mg), revealing no significant effect of temperature or salinity on δ26MgLBF. Furthermore, the Mg isotopic fractionation in O. ammonoides was found to be close to that of inorganic calcite, indicating minimal vital effects in these large benthic foraminifera.
Operculina ammonoides is the nearest living relative of the abundant Eocene genus Nummulites, enabling the reconstruction of seawater chemistry using the calibration based on O. ammonoides. The trace elemental/calcium proxies, including Na/Ca, K/Ca, and Mg/Ca, as well as the δ26Mg proxy, were investigated in Eocene Nummulites. The result showed that during the Eocene, [Ca2+]sw was 1.6-2 times higher, while [K+]sw was ~2 times lower than the modern seawater composition. Furthermore, [Mg2+]sw decreased from the early Eocene (54.3− +9 7..69 mmol kg-1 at ~55 Ma) to Late Eocene (37.8− +4 4..3 4 mmol kg-1 at ~31 Ma), followed by
an increase toward modern seawater [Mg]. In contrast, the variability in δ26Mgsw values remained within a narrow range of ~0.3 ‰ throughout the Cenozoic. The reconstructed [Ca2+]sw agrees with the suggestion that Cenozoic seawater chemistry changes can be explained via a change in the seafloor spreading rate. When combined with existing records, the observed minimal change in δ26Mgsw with an increase in [Mg2+]sw suggests an additional possible role of a decrease in the formation of authigenic clay minerals coincident with the Cenozoic decline in deep ocean temperature, which is also supported by the increase in the [K+]sw reconstructed here for the first time. This finding highlights that the reduction in seafloor-spreading rate and decline in reverse weathering during the Cenozoic era has played a significant role in the evolution of seawater chemistry, emphasizing the importance of these processes in driving long-term changes in the carbon cycle.